cinema2020

Point of View

For the. means the portion of space included in the two-dimensional visual framework, within the rectangular frame that delimits the projected image of the film, and again, in terms of duration, the minimum set of frames(v.) in sequence that outline a visible movement. On a theoretical level, if the single frame - whose standard format is that of a 35 mm wide film with a ratio with the height of the picture varying from 4/3, or 1.33, silent film standard, to 2 , 35 up to 2.55 (depending on whether the soundtrack was present on the film) of the Cinemascope - with its shape it forms the imprint of the visual picture (and therefore taken by itself it could be roughly compared to a letter from the the alphabet of cinematographic vision as a distinctive though not significant segment of the expressive dynamism of the image), the i., on the other hand, cannot be made to correspond to a simple visual word made up of frames, nor to a single statement; if anything, it corresponds to an ongoing description, that is, to the minimum denotation of a set of reference objects to which it refers in an analogical sense, which are found in a more or less complex relationship, a relationship whose evolution properly constitutes the narrative signifier of the filmic vision. As a chronological evolution of the photographic medium, in fact, the i. cinematographic describes first of all the events in their change, the gestures and the actions that involve a significant passage from one situation to another. The function of the i., In the semiotics of the discourse of cinema, is in dialectical relationship with that carried out by the montage, that is the sequential union of several i. different. In this sense, the editing can be made to correspond to a narrative connotation of the individual 'descriptions' expressed by i., In the span of an articulated sequence of filmic time. The variation of i. within the illusion of continuity that the image projected on the screen provides to the spectator's gaze, it is one of the foundations of cinematographic narration. The problem of a correct definition of the i. it becomes even more complicated when considering the sound film: as an audiovisual ensemble, in fact, it implies a point of view and a listening point; similarly, the visual montage is accompanied by a sound montage, often asynchronous with respect to i. (the sound can anticipate the next i, or prolong the previous one in it), or it differs in terms of the perception of spatiality (at the distance of the character framed by the camera, a similar 'sound distance' may not correspond). L' the. from a technical point of view, therefore, it must be considered as the result of four distinct but concomitant processes: two on-location processes, namely the visual and phonic shooting, and two of post-production, assembly and mixing (assembly and calibration of the column sound).

In the spatio-temporal delimitation of the visible, which effects narrative, the i. it depends primarily on the angle that the director chooses to shoot a certain subject. In theory, there are infinite possible angles, which correspond to as many potential points of view, within which to choose to build a single i .: from above, from below, plumb, supine, horizontal, in axis, etc. with respect to the subject or portion of the field to be framed. The choice, however, is often addressed by well-defined representative needs, and is generally elaborated on the basis of the criteria of continuity of the action in the passage between. different, or fittings. Typologically, the i. they are distinguished on the basis of the process of perspective centering and relative focus of a specific subject or of a whole more complex than the frame of the visual framework. If the reference parameter is the size of the human figure present in the i., Depending on the relationship that exists between it and the background, a scale of the recovery planes can be given, ranging from the whole figure (a human body from the head to toe) on the very first floor (from the forehead to the chin of a face). On the other hand, if the parameter is that of the amplitude of the scenic space inside the I., a scale of the shooting fields is enumerated, ranging from the very long field (a large panorama) to the medium field (a space restricted to the human dimension). There. in this sense it is the result of a relationship between the shooting field and the plane of the human figure that appears in it, in relation to the frame of the image. That is, it expresses a double relationship, which reflects the chronological and two-dimensional synthesis function of the three spatial dimensions carried out by the image: the relationship between frame and figure (plane), and the relationship between figure and background (field), over the its duration. The delimitation of the vision with respect to a single subject occupying the whole picture can also be partial, and in this case the i. it will be the detail of a human or animal body, or a detail if referred to plants or objects. Being the i. perceived by the spectator as structurally partial with respect to an alleged '360 ° space' on which the 'overs(v.), an element that (thanks above all to sound) creates a particular narrative tension between vision as such and what is allusively excluded from it. The idea of ​​off-field corresponds to the i. in the backfield, that is the visualization of what in the i. previous is perceived as present and external to the painting. Finally, there is an identification factor of the i. in the dramatic person: if the contents of the i. they have as their visual point of reference an anonymous and neutral witness that disappears in the multiplicity of points of view of the narrative instance, and the protagonist of the story appears indifferently within the painting, we speak of i. objective. Conversely, if the camera lens coincides with the point of view of a character not visible but in some way noticeable on the off-screen, we speak of i. subjective. There. subjective involves a double process of meaning: the univocalization of the point of view, which is connoted emotionally and psychically, and the personification of the off-screen. Being the i. circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one subjective involves a double process of meaning: the univocalization of the point of view, which is connoted emotionally and psychically, and the personification of the off-screen. Being the i. circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one subjective involves a double process of meaning: the univocalization of the point of view, which is connoted emotionally and psychically, and the personification of the off-screen. Being the i. circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form onesequence (v.) of shots. Should to go from an i. stable to another, there are no assembly cuts, but machine movements (see) to be taken, such as cranes, trolleys or panoramas, which move the frame and point of view without detaching, changing the field of vision and the plane of the figure , the sequence plan is obtained(v.), which can be considered to all intents and purposes a sort of internal assembly within the frame. It should also be stressed that the i. it is determined by an arbitrary duration: the same gesture, resumed in its execution, can be more rarefied, slowed down or suspended, vice versa faster, accelerated or interrupted. On the level of signification, duration implies completely different effects: time is not an accessory to the space of vision, but determines its perception, directing it to the emotional level (slowness can express serenity, but also, in situations of tension, anguish, speed is generally associated with an imminent danger, but also with relief). There is therefore an internal rhythm of the i., Given by the relationship between the framed space and the flow of time used to frame it; the sound rhythm is superimposed on it, which is the result of the harmonic fusion between the column of noises, that of dialogue and music. All these elements are actively implicated in the current conception of a single i. film.

In the definition of the i. there is a remarkable conceptual difference between the nomenclature in use in France and that widespread in the United States, the two countries that fought for the authorship of cinema at the time of its invention through the filming device patent: Thomas A.'s Kinetoscope. Edison and the Cinématographe of Louis and Auguste Lumière. French tradition distinguishes the process of making the i. as a framework (cadrage) through the measurement of the recovery plans (plan): the cadre, i. as a frame that cuts out the diegetic space, it sets out a series of plans, which correspond to the different perspective planes of the scene in which the human figure can be found. The measurement term, therefore, is that of the dimensions of the human figure in relation to the frame (the first floor, e.g., it is the gros plan, large plan, the very long field corresponds to the plan général, general plan). The Anglo-American tradition tends more markedly to identify the process of framing, indicating the distance of the framed object, through the so-called camera distances. The shot or take (literally 'shooting' or 'shooting'), a photographic term of hunting origin, relating to the aim with which to 'hit' the object, describes the relationship between the framed object and the objective of the machine from the operator's point of view rather than in relation to the frame (e.g. close-up, i.e. close-up, or long shot, i.e. long shot). The Anglo-American tradition tends more markedly to identify the process of framing, indicating the distance of the framed object, through the so-called camera distances. The shot or take (literally 'shooting' or 'shooting'), a photographic term of hunting origin, relating to the aim with which to 'hit' the object, describes the relationship between the framed object and the objective of the machine from the operator's point of view rather than in relation to the frame (e.g. close-up, i.e. close-up, or long shot, i.e. long shot). The Anglo-American tradition tends more markedly to identify the process of framing, indicating the distance of the framed object, through the so-called camera distances. The shot or take (literally 'shooting' or 'shooting'), a photographic term of hunting origin, relating to the aim with which to 'hit' the object, describes the relationship between the framed object and the objective of the machine from the operator's point of view rather than in relation to the frame (e.g. close-up, i.e. close-up, or long shot, i.e. long shot).

The Italian term i. it merges the meanings of cadre as framework and plan, and is therefore more similar to shot English, in that it does not break down the two aspects, but often uses them as synonyms. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, in the first feature films, in the absence of a narrative montage, the concept of i. still equivalent to that of image tout court: the fixed plane in the total field, similarly to the scene of a filmed theater, had an assembly entirely internal to the I., that is, made up of the movements of the actors and their relationship with the off-field, used as stage backdrop for exposed entrances and exits. The i., At that time, was also not technically controllable during the construction phase by the operator: the lack of a viewfinder in the hand crank camera meant that the cameraman had to center it at the beginning, without checking the correctness during shooting. Historically understand the process of defining the concept of i. means to focus on the progressive inventions that have moved the use of the camera from a witness neutrality marked by a 'right distance' (bonne distance) from actors and scenarios, of theatrical derivation (conception to which great artists of the early cinema , first of all Georges Méliès, remained tied throughout their career), up to a use in narrative function, partly borrowed from the techniques of theatrical writing (e.g. the foreground as development of the part on the proscenium), but even more from painting, photography and more or less coeval folk art of comics, with which the different distances between human figure and objective, machine movements and angle have been elaborated in a dramatic sense. More generally, it can be said that the history of the solutions identified by the directors to solve the technical and expressive problems of the i. it went to settle down from time to time in a sort of film grammar, quickly spread thanks to the extremely competitive regime of the producers of the beginning, who immediately copied the new inventions of their rivals to market them in turn. Much of this grammar was developed empirically and without any systematization in the first decade of cinema, when facial expression and

Before the consequential logic of assembly(v.) properly said to take hold, at the end of the nineteenth century, several i were already used. for a single subject film, but in general each of them, called tableau (painting, in a pictorial sense), coincided with a single scene that respected the units of space and time, and was therefore preceded by a special explanatory sign: therefore, there were no visible assembly units. The tableau did not contemplate the possibility of a backfield: direct successor of the theatrical representation, it presupposed beyond the camera an overall gaze on the part of the spectator, and treated the set as a stage box, a repeatable theater. Only when, with the first films shot outdoors, did a realistic instance borrowed from photography take over, namely the need for the i. were extrapolated from an infinite space, the viewer's gaze was no longer fixed and the diegetic space ideally extended 360 °. In this way the i. they varied away, becoming elementary parts of more complex scenes, whose point of view was no longer fixed but, as happened in the comics, it was formed by an unspecified sequence of points of view variable depending on where you wanted to direct the viewer's gaze . The closed space of cinema thus opened onto a reconstructed world, which in a certain sense also incorporated the public. The decisive step towards the modern conception of the i. as a sample of expressive distances between camera and framed subject, of uncertain authorship and difficult dating, it was accomplished by the anti-naturalistic and autonomous introduction of the first and very first floor, which involved a process of anthropomorphization of the i., basing it on the dramatic accentuation of facial mimicry. Born as a fairground attraction and genre in its own right, the first floor, a direct descendant of pictorial and photographic portraiture, was already present in protofilm such as the one in which Georges Deménÿ pronounced the phrase "je vous aime" to his chronophotographer in 1891, or in Fred Ott's sneeze by William KL Dickson, shot with a cinetoscope in 1894, while in The May Irwin-John C. Rice kiss by William Heise, the famous and scandalous reprise of a theatrical scene for Edison's Vitascope of 1896, the protagonists were cut in half figure in an i. very close partial. A few years later, in 1900, the Englishman George Albert Smith, a former portrait photographer, He specialized for Charles Urban's Warwick Trading Company in animated portraiture, with the Humorous facial expressions series: short films consisting of simple close-ups of faces with exaggerated caricature mimicry, intent on common gestures such as sniffing tobacco or drinking wine. Among the first filmmakers to use explicitly narrative a continuity of assembly between different scenes, borrowing it above all from the young popular art of comics, there were the British of the so-calledBrighton school(v.): if Smith himself made numerous films between 1900 and 1901 mixing close-ups (then called magnificient views), total fields and details, his colleague James Williamson alternated between total fields and close-ups, some already in function of counterfield, with a procedure that represents the idea of ​​a narrative montage in embryo. Williamson was the author in 1901 of the satirical film A big swallow, where a detail of the protagonist's mouth swallowing a camera appears, and of Stop thief !, in which a single escape action is fragmented into multiple points of view mounted in sequence , as well as from Hallo, are you there ?, where he first experimented with the split screen technique, the screen divided into several parts to simultaneously show different spaces: in the latter film, two men calling each other, taken on an American plane, they appear side by side in the same image divided into two shots. The same year Smith made As seen through a telescope, where, using a circular matte, he showed what the protagonist's eye saw, making one of the first subject films in the history of cinema.

Among the experimenters of the assembly detachment is the American Edwin S. Porter, who made two very significant narrative films for Edison's Vitascope: The life of an American fireman (1902) and The great train robbery (1903; The assault on the train). If in the former, not unlike what the Corsican Ferdinand Zecca experienced in France for Pathé Frères in 1901 with the film Histoire d'un crime, the passage between different scenes was ensured by a cross-fading done by hand, closing and reopening the objective, in the second there are exposed connections on different scenarios that follow the movements of the protagonists step by step in their escape, constituting real fragmented sequences,

From the beginning the major national productions, the French, the American and the English, have been characterized in the setting of the i., Which has become a sort of recognizable trademark. The height of the camera, in the first French productions Pathé, was by convention unnaturally fixed at the height of the character's life, and although the diagonals of the scene were already used to create a greater perspective effect by moving the action on several levels, the limit of proximity to the camera was set at four meters for a 50mm lens. For US pioneers, from Edison's operators to directing David W. Griffith's first short filmsfor the Biograph, the i. for a long time it has been based on a criterion of frontality of faces and scenarios arranged at right angles to the optical axis, at the standard distance of a minimum of nine feet from the camera, and more or less fixed use of the whole figure . The use of the minimum distance involved in both cases a certain variation of the internal planes of the i., Linked to the movement of the actor, which varied from the whole figure to a half figure. In France, in the famous Assassinat du duc de Guise (1908) by André Calmettes and Charles Le Bargy, produced by the Film d'Art, the characters broke the perspective convention of the 'fourth wall' with their backs in some scenes to the camera. socket. In some American Vitagraph productions dating from around 1905-06, the point of view was raised until it corresponded to the operator's eyes: realistic and anti-theatrical view, which gradually gave rise to the need to diversify and bring closer the shots of the multiple 'planes' of the human figure to obtain greater dramatic accentuation of the scenes. The Vitagraph style can be traced back to the experimentation of the variation of the shooting angle of a single subject within the same scene, as well as a decisive step forward in the experimentation of the i. subjective (then called a point of view shot); while in the films of the Brighton school the subjective was made with devices such as the matte, to simulate the vision through a telescope, binoculars or a lens, the whole view of some i. of films, such as Back to nature (1910), is identified with the eyes of the main character. From the centrality of the human figure in the focus of the i. the panoramic and photographic approach of the Lumière brothers differed significantly, which had a significant influence on the productions of Film d'Art. Since the first short film shown in Paris in December 1895, L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, the way in which the operators of the vues (views) were able to use the diagonal internal movement in the sense of depth of field, is remarkable. performing a decentralization (décadrage) that shifted the focus of the action with respect to the front perspective, and dynamically exploited the empty spaces in relation to the edge of the picture, with the result of accentuating the aspect of internal chronological sequencing. The technique of décadrage developed in the first decade of the century especially in the mass scenes of spectacular cinema and is already evidently carried out in large productions with historical subjects such as the Italian Cabiria (1914) by Giovanni Pastrone and the masterpiece by Griffith Intolerance (1916 ), although it was perfected to its highest degree in the following decade by Soviet cinematography, as evidenced by the choral scenes of the pivotal work Bronenosec Potëmkin (1925; The battleship Potëmkin) by Sergej M. Ejzenštejn. In it the greatest effect of the décadrage consists in including in the visual picture a part that is virtually belonging to the off-field and extraneous to the active focus of the scene, in order to develop several independent levels of action and increase the sensation of reality in direct image taking. One last, decisive break in the identification between image and i. it is due to the introduction of machine movements with a specific narrative function. The overview, which the operator of the Lumière brothers, Eugène Promio, had experimented around 1897, was already used by Zecca in a scene of La vie et la passion de Jésus Christ, L'adoration des Mages shot in 1902, which shows the crowd of characters traveling to the Bethlehem hut not with the usual total field, but through the movement of the machine on the axis forward and backward. Among the first uses of the trolley in expressive function (G. Méliès used it already, but only to produce illusionistic effects), it includes that of a 1903 film produced by WKL Dickson's American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, Hooligan in jail, where the operator passed from the total field of the cell to a close-up of the prisoner gradually and seamlessly approaching. Subsequently, the shooting with the movement of the trolley became in the United States an attraction in its own right in the so-called Hale's tour, which, starting from 1905 and around 1912, the producers Adolphe Zukor, Sam Warner and Carl Laemmle set up in theaters. projections equipped with the scenography of the interior of a train, from whose window-screen it was possible to observe views of landscapes taken from the stonecutter of a locomotive. L' use of machine movements such as the crane or the dolly flourished throughout the course of the first decade of the twentieth century and among its major experimenters certainly had Griffith who, starting from 1908, with The adventures of Dollie, going around the Biograph at rhythm of two films a week, managed to overcome the limits of the narration of ingenious pioneers such as ES Porter who, in 1905, with The kleptomaniac, had introduced the theatrical technique of parallel editing into the cinema, destined for a large diffusion in the following years. Griffith inserted the i. in a global articulated narrative scheme that broke the time unit of the story, recovering rhetorical and psychological connotations of the literary text such as flashback or cut-back (the unveiling or reconstruction of something that happened before the current time of the story). Founding the nexus of i. on the internal evolutions of the characters rather than on the external events, the camera became in Griffith's cinema a dramatic element in itself, a real presence, the substitute for the narrating self: consequently, its concrete mirror, the physiognomy of the actor gradually took over the mimicry and action. There. it had now become part of a code of writing of space and time without limits or boundaries, the minimum element of a new narrativity, of a new expressive language.

In the following decade the technical experimentation of the i. it lost its episodic character, and became the object of study and teaching, together with the theory of editing, in the first schools of cinematography, first of all that of the newly created Soviet Union. The experimental work carried out since 1919 by the director in his early twenties Lev V. Kulešov as a teacher at the GTK (Goskino Technikum) in Moscow represents in this sense one of the most advanced tips in the development of the language of cinema. His reflection was taken up and deepened in the following decades by Ejzenštejn, which deserves credit for having introduced a form of i into the cinema, with didactic and propaganda intent unrealistic and eccentric, belonging to a logic different from the dramatic one: the i. metaphorical or intellectual, abstract visualization from the narrative context of a judgment in the form of comparison between characters and situations and their term of comparison with popular metaphors. Among these, one of the most famous remains that of the head of the duma AF Kerenskij in Oktjabr ′ (1927; October), whose emphatic rise to the stairs of the building is interspersed with i. of a mechanical peacock and a plaster statuette of Napoleon. The use of the i. it was experimented symbolically among others by the Danish Carl Theodor Dreyer, which in the film La passion de Jeanne d'Arc (1927; The passion of Joan of Arc), during the scenes of the trial, through an obsessive alternation between the. from the top of the prisoner to show his checkmate position, and from the bottom of his judges to underline his position of dominion, he managed to render all the drama of the victim-executioner relationship with the simple variation of the shooting angle. In the same years, in Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm Murnauon the more visionary side, according to an aesthetic similar to that of the expressionist movement, he used the i. subjective as a projection of moods on reality. In the film Der letzte Mann (1924; The last laugh), the famous 'drunk machine', the floating and disjointed point of view with which scenarios and objects were framed, managed to express in an unprecedented way the state of alteration and intoxication of the desperate protagonist. The French filmmakers of the first avant-garde, defined by some critics as impressionist (see impressionism), to concretize in image the flows of thought, the fantasies and the moods of the protagonists, were among the first to give an artistic impulse to the possibility of deformation of the i. through techniques already in use for some time such as slow motion, overlays and anomalous points of view. To witness it were films of great visual impact such as La souriante madame Beudet (1923) directed by Germaine Dulac, L'affiche (1926) and La chute de la maison Usher (1928) by Jean Epstein, or Feu Mathias Pascal (1925; Il fu Mattia Pascal) by Marcel L'Herbier. Among the most important experiments of that national wave, one should mention that carried out in Napoléon (1927; Napoleon) by Abel Gance, which, realizing the subjective of an inanimate object in movement, the snowball thrown as a game by Napoleon as a child, paved the way for the use of the so-called i. imaginary, that is, impossible to be experienced by the human observer to whom the narrative instance refers, a spectacular and aesthetic stratagem that will be widely distributed in the following decades, with i. such as bird's eye view, low shot etc. In 1941, with his debut film Citizen Kane (Fourth power), the American Orson Welleshe recovered a widely used technique already in the 1910s and through special wide-focal lenses he managed to exploit the depth of field by simultaneously focusing multiple planes of the i., therefore in fact, to create an i. where multiple action gives rise to multiple simultaneous narratives. This can be clearly seen in the scene of the entrusting of the little protagonist Charles Foster Kane from his parents to a guardian, in which the images of the adult characters who speak on an advanced level are counterpointed by those of the child playing unaware against the background of the i., beyond the frame of a window, dramatically affecting the sense of dialogue.

A separate discussion requires the specificity of the use of i. in oriental cinema, characterized by an essential and geometric composition, especially the Japanese one. In several Ozu Yasujirō films, for example, the camera is placed at a minimum distance from the ground, the so-called tatami height, the ceremonial or combat carpet, so that you can shoot the characters, in the director's films often sitting around a table or on the ground, in axis with respect to their point of view or framing the counterfields and making machine movements from their own perspective, according to a stylistic and expressive unity.

From the beginning the spatial and temporal limit of the i. Classical represented an open challenge for many filmmakers. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Raoul Grimoin-Sanson invented the cinéorama, a complex multiple filming apparatus, consisting of ten cameras arranged in a radial pattern on an air balloon. The result of the experiment was presented at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900, in a special 360 ° projection space, where ten projectors spread the images on a huge circular wall that served as a screen. In the aforementioned Napoléon, a quarter of a century later, taking the idea of ​​décadrage to the extreme, Gance had conceived the film for a 180 ° multiscreen projection, capable of enveloping and shocking the audience during the mass scenes of the battles. In 1936, in the United States, the Warner Bros. production company presented the first three-dimensional or stereoscopic cinema experiments, which were based on the use of glasses with colored lenses (for the left green eye, for the red right), with which viewers could recompose images projected slightly split on the screen. In an attempt to overcome the two-dimensional crushing of the i., Various 3D cinema systems would have followed one another in a rather unsatisfactory way after the Second World War. On the opposite side, that of spectacular emptying, the most radical auteur cinema of the fifties and sixties, especially that of the various national 'new waves', he has dealt with the filmic space often using very long sequence plans that questioned the concept of narrative segmentation proper to i. as a definitive framework. Radical and ascetic authors, such as Ozu, Robert Bresson andMichelangelo Antonioni, hanno adottato in funzione drammatica i. improprie, prima fra tutte il campo vuoto, ovvero la scena priva della presenza di piani con figure umane. Il cinema sperimentale del dopoguerra, invece, ha teso soprattutto a forzare i limiti cronologici dell'inquadratura. Tra gli esperimenti più estremi del cinema underground statunitense, volti ad attentare alla presunta necessaria spettacolarità del mezzo cinematografico, vanno ricordate almeno le provocazioni percettive dell'artista newyorkese di origine ceca Andy Warhol: Empire (1964), costituito da un'unica i. fissa di otto ore di durata del grattacielo dell'Empire State Building e dei contemporanei micro-eventi atmosferici, che ha restituito l'i. alla sua natura fotografica primigenia, e The Chelsea girls (1967), che riprende la tecnica dello split screen estendendola all'intera durata del film, con il risultato di creare un doppio film in due quadri paralleli, a volte tra loro intercomunicanti, da proiettare contemporaneamente su un unico schermo. In questo senso, uno degli esperimenti più riusciti è senz'altro quello di Michael Snow, canadese trapiantato a New York, che in Wavelength (1967) ha esasperato l'importanza del movimento come unica fonte di percezione del tempo nell'immagine. Il film consiste di un solo, lentissimo zoom che, partendo da un campo totale, per quarantacinque minuti attraversa lo spazio di una grande stanza, avvicinando progressivamente una fotografia che mostra un dettaglio di onde marine, ed è appesa a una parete, tra due grandi finestre, oltre le quali si vede scorrere la vita quotidiana della strada cittadina.In conclusione, la tecnologia digitale (v. digital, cinema ), introduced in the cinema from the eighties of the 20th century, in theory made possible the integral modification in postproduction of the i., allowing the manipulation of all the visual and sound parameters of the recorded image. Nevertheless, even when fully reconstructed or digitally manipulated, the i. cinematographic did not change in substance the main setting of the 'setting in the picture', its linguistic function of minimal narrative and expressive unity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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