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Abatantuono, Diego Film actor, born in Milan on 20 May 1955. A multifaceted talent whose film career was characterized initially by commercial films, he later became a protagonist of Italian cinema thanks also to the collaboration with some directors such as Gabriele Salvatores, Pupi Avati, Giuseppe Bertolucci, Luigi Comencini, Daniele Luchetti. He won two silver ribbons, in 1987 for Avati's Christmas gift (1986) and in 1993 for Salvatores' Puerto Escondido (1992). His acting career began alongside the comic group of Gatti di Vicolo Miracoli in the film Arrivano i cats (1980) by Carlo Vanzina. This was followed by Fico d'India (1980) by Steno and I fichissimi (1981) by Vanzina, his first starring film in which he played for the first time the amusing role of the terrunciello, a character for whom he invented a dialect that entered to be part of the history of the cassette film, in which Eccezzziunale must be remembered… truly (1982) again directed by Vanzina. From 1983 he abandoned commercial cinema to devote himself to theater and in 1984 he played Sganarello in Don Giovanni di Molière, directed by Mario Morini. It was only in 1986 that, with the Christmas gift, he began to try his hand at more demanding subjects, showing remarkable talent. After Comencini's Un boy from Calabria (1987), the following year he worked with G. Bertolucci in Strana la vita and I cammelli. Starting in 1989, first with Marrakech Express and the following year with Turné, the collaboration with G. Salvatores began, which then entrusted him with the role of pacifist soldier Nicola Lorusso, pretended gruff, ironic and nostalgic, in the Mediterranean (Oscar for best foreign film in 1992), that of a Milanese banker who escapes to Mexico in Puerto Escondido and again, in 1996, that of the protagonist of a video game in Nirvana. The relationship of mutual exchange with Salvatores led him to outline characters in which the reflection on the crisis of a generation emerges, always with an ironic and disenchanted cut. Subsequently in Unfair Competition (2001),
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Giusti, Diego's parable , in "The five-six patalogue", 1983; G. Stornelli, Diego Abatantuono , Rome 1998.
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[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 21:06 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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Arsène Lupine Literary character, protagonist of a series of detective novels (since 1907) by the French writer M. Leblanc (1864 -1941). Theatrical adaptations have been dedicated to the figure of the gentleman thief, starting from that (1909) of Leblanc and the French writer F. de Croisset (1877-1937), and cinematographic.
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[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 20:51 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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Cinema Yesterday, today and tomorrow: changing seasons of Italian cinema Towards Italian cinema of the new millennium by Lino Miccichè April 18 The jury of 53 in edition of the Cannes Film Festival, for the first time in the history of the prestigious competition, excludes Italy from participating in the review. According to the head of the selection, Gilles Jacob, no Italian film "has the necessary quality level". The decision, although subject to criticism, leads to a serious reflection on the current conditions of Italian cinema. After the nineties It is impossible to speak of Italian cinema of 2000 without proceeding along the line of a budget of the nineties of the 20th century. On the other hand, we know: although the numerical neatness of the date seems unquestionably peremptory, the years, the decades, the centuries and the millennia are a hortus conclususonly for the Blackbeard and the other calendars, or for the visionaries who delight in periodic forecasts. For the historian, the duration of the phenomena almost never corresponds to the openings and closings of the calendar and it is only for display convenience that even historians adapt, sometimes, to talk about nineteenth-century literature, eighteenth-century music or Six hundred. From an effective point of view, history, like nature, does not 'jump' and, when it does, they do not correspond at all, or not necessarily, to the annual, decennial, secular and, least of all, millennial 'jumps'. Thus, many phenomena of the nineties are only the continuation without interruption of the same phenomena in the eighties and continue, uninterrupted, in 2000 and maybe beyond. This also applies to Italian cinema:terminus ad quem cannot be forecast). But, in every field, few escaped the temptation to close the dynamics of the nineties with December 31, 1999 and to propose a balance of the decade, as if, necessarily, the phenomena had suddenly stopped on that date and had presented, from the next day, a renewed and innovative face. And it happened, of course, also in the cinema, which also forces us, wanting to talk about 2000, to take into account the many cinematographic budgets and accounts made, first of all the one proposed, in the third decade of June, in Pesaro. A transition cinema? A Pesaro in 2000 , in fact (besides doing consistently followed the budgets of the seventies and later eighties), the special event, for the fourteenth time parallel to the International Festival of New Cinema, now at 36 per year, is was monographically dedicated to the Italian cinema of the nineties with a retrospective of over sixty titles, including long and short films, from those explicitly 'experimental', such as Fiori del destino-Sorrisi asmatici by Tonino De Bernardi, Giro di lune between land and sea by Giuseppe M. Gaudino, Totò who lived twice by Daniele Ciprì and Franco Maresco, on traditional comedies such as Ovosodoby Paolo Virzì, Leonardo Pieraccioni's graduates , red American by Alessandro D'Alatri. At the end, a round table was held, crowded with authors and critics, entitled In praise of Italian cinema? , where the question mark only served to loosen, with the shadow of a polite methodological doubt, the implicit, and paradoxical, peremptory nature of the statement. In addition to the large catalog with the cards of the films on the program, a volume of 518 pages, edited by the same animator of the review, Vito Zagarrio ( The cinema of the transition), Venice, Marsilio, 2000), rich, apart from the precious statistical and descriptive apparatus, of about forty essays. Each of these, of course, went its own way, depending on the essayist's inspiration, not only as regards the theme chosen, the critical methodology adopted, the judgment on the author or the film taken into consideration - which is, of course, of course - but also as regards the explicit, or implicit, judgment on the real matter of the dispute, or the Italian cinema of the nineties, which, moreover, the title of the book wanted by the curator (after the volumes dedicated to the 'reflux cinema' for the seventies and the 'opaque screens' for the eighties) defined, without taking an open party, 'cinema of the transition', More or less clearly, the nineties were a decade of 'transition' in many; but historian Rosario Villari said it in a particularly clear and well-motivated way, thus arguing in a Gramscian key: "We are in a phase in which old structures have collapsed, and we are moving in search of new scenarios. I would call it the decade of transition . The formula of transition can be easy, everything is transition, of course. But for these years, the notion is particularly fitting, because you see the old structures that have gone down, but you don't see the new ones on the horizon, you don't see the Hence the sense of unease, but also the need for a lot of imagination, which will take to transform, in a non-conservative way, the However, the definition of the nineties as an overall transition season -considering, internationally, the definitive collapse of the communist system with which the eighties ended, without the structure of the triumphant capitalism finding an appreciably lasting balance in the decade, and considering, nationally, the collapse of the political forces that had dominated the former Repubblica (DC and PSI in the first place, but also PCI and minor parties, albeit with less accentuated evidence), without the horizons of the second Republic being defined at the end of the decade - it seems to adapt perfectly to the overall political, planetary and national framework , but much less, to say nothing at all, to the cinematographic picture. Here, in fact, the 'collapse of the old structures' of which Villari speaks did not manifest itself either in the late eighties, or in the early nineties, but in the second half of the seventies: when the Constitutional Court's ruling on the liberalization of the ether started a process of reorganization of the media that does not appear destined to determine in the short term new and appreciably lasting balances. Balances that cannot be established at least until (2005? 2010?) The demand / supply horizon of audiovisual goods is no longer defined, consequent to the continental, if not planetary, expansion of new technologies for the transmission of cinema and television products and, in general, of dynamic images with sound, including a point of arrival, at least provisional, for the diffusion of audiovisual goods online. Just one example: the online transmission of cinematographic films is already virtually possible and, in some rare cases, practiced.in short , some satisfactory legal solution. However, it is unthinkable that the legal obstacle will be able to stop the irrepressible push of technological progress for a long time: inevitably the juridical superstructure will adapt to the powerful structure of planetary economic interests behind the system. When this happens, a matter of a few years, certainly by 2010, it will be a new revolution, for the supply / demand system of audiovisual goods and, more than ever, for the cinema system that went into crisis in the seventies, but this time included the USA film empire, which instead, from the seventies onwards, has so far strengthened its hegemony - at least apparently far from any threat of crisis - on the whole planet. So if it's not aof transition ', the Italian nineties, can be called a' film of transition ', ie a movie that somehow reflects the many uncertainties - let's say the' discomfort '- a historical and political transition from the final outcomes undefined and undefinable? This is precisely the point on which the greatest disagreements, divergent opinions, and even radically antithetical judgments are registered. The commodity crisis and television consumption On at least two points, however, there are wide margins of consensus. The first is the crisis, so to speak, of the commodity crisis of national cinematography. In the early seventies, still driven by the progressively more noteworthy flowering of the previous decade, cinema had in our market a catchment area second in the western industrial world only to that of the United States, and counted between a minimum (1975) of 513 million and a maximum (1972) of 553 million tickets; and, most importantly, the market share which, overall, was due to the Italian film (and of Italian majority co-production) remained around 60%: in other words, on the average of 536 million tickets per year for the 1970 period -75, just under 322 million went to national cinematography, which, moreover, offered between 40, 6% (1975) and 52.2% (1972) of the total outstanding securities. During the 1990s, the cinema user base represented by our market has lost all primacy and is reduced to less than a fifth of that of the early 1970s, oscillating between minimum peaks (1992) of 83 million and maximum peaks (1998) of 118 million tickets, with an annual average, 1990-98, of 95.5 million; but what matters most is that the market share which, overall, belongs to the Italian film has suffered an impressive collapse. Already in the 1980s it had gone down, from 43.5% in 1980 to 21.7% in 1989; in the period 1990-98 it held an average of 24.07% with the minimum peak (1993) of 17.1% and the maximum peak, isolated (1997, thanks to the weight of two or three Christmas hits), of 32.9 %. 2% (1972) of the total outstanding securities. During the 1990s, the cinema user base represented by our market has lost all primacy and is reduced to less than a fifth of that of the early 1970s, oscillating between minimum peaks (1992) of 83 million and maximum peaks (1998) of 118 million tickets, with an annual average, 1990-98, of 95.5 million; but what matters most is that the market share which, overall, belongs to the Italian film has suffered an impressive collapse. Already in the 1980s it had gone down, from 43.5% in 1980 to 21.7% in 1989; in the period 1990-98 it held an average of 24.07% with the minimum peak (1993) of 17.1% and the maximum peak, isolated (1997, thanks to the weight of two or three Christmas hits), of 32.9 %. 2% (1972) of the total outstanding securities. During the 1990s, the cinema user base represented by our market has lost all primacy and is reduced to less than a fifth of that of the early 1970s, oscillating between minimum peaks (1992) of 83 million and maximum peaks (1998) of 118 million tickets, with an annual average, 1990-98, of 95.5 million; but what matters most is that the market share which, overall, belongs to the Italian film has suffered an impressive collapse. Already in the 1980s it had gone down, from 43.5% in 1980 to 21.7% in 1989; in the period 1990-98 it held an average of 24.07% with the minimum peak (1993) of 17.1% and the maximum peak, isolated (1997, thanks to the weight of two or three Christmas hits), of 32.9 %. During the 1990s, the cinema user base represented by our market has lost all primacy and is reduced to less than a fifth of that of the early 1970s, oscillating between minimum peaks (1992) of 83 million and maximum peaks (1998) of 118 million tickets, with an annual average, 1990-98, of 95.5 million; but what matters most is that the market share which, overall, belongs to the Italian film has suffered an impressive collapse. Already in the 1980s it had gone down, from 43.5% in 1980 to 21.7% in 1989; in the period 1990-98 it held an average of 24.07% with the minimum peak (1993) of 17.1% and the maximum peak, isolated (1997, thanks to the weight of two or three Christmas hits), of 32.9 %. During the 1990s, the cinema user base represented by our market has lost all primacy and is reduced to less than a fifth of that of the early 1970s, oscillating between minimum peaks (1992) of 83 million and maximum peaks (1998) of 118 million tickets, with an annual average, 1990-98, of 95.5 million; but what matters most is that the market share which, overall, belongs to the Italian film has suffered an impressive collapse. Already in the 1980s it had gone down, from 43.5% in 1980 to 21.7% in 1989; in the period 1990-98 it held an average of 24.07% with the minimum peak (1993) of 17.1% and the maximum peak, isolated (1997, thanks to the weight of two or three Christmas hits), of 32.9 %. Now, since 24.07% of 95.5 million tickets - the aforementioned average of the nineties - is equivalent to just under 23 million, the formula of the commodity collapse of Italian cinema, from the second seventies to today, is dramatically simple: Italian cinema in the last decade had on average less than a fourteenth of the spectators of the early seventies, while the same number of Italian films on offer fell (with a single peak of 42.1% in 1994) to 30-32% since the quantity of national films produced was reduced, which in 1994-98 remained constantly below 100 annual units (maximum peak 1996 with 99 films, minimum peak 1995 with 75). But such a significant downsizing of the national market, corresponding to a much less significant - and in any case absolutely not proportionate - decrease in the working capital of the autochthonous film (in the nineties oscillating between about two fifths and about three fifths of the 1970-75 films), necessarily implies a a noticeable loss of profitability of individual films in the domestic market. According to a statistically abstract assessment, in fact, the nearly 100 titles on average produced in the nineties have less than 230,000 spectators each, while the less than 250 titles produced on average in the first five years of the seventies had 1,300,000 spectators each. According to a concrete observation, however,home video . A clear majority remains far from the recovery of costs, and does not determine uninterrupted chains of bankruptcies only thanks to state funding, which is granted to 'films of national interest' (virtually non-refundable, when the market does not allow recovery; l. 153/1994), to young cinema (art. 8 of Law no. 153) and to 'national production films' (that is, from 1994 to 1999: 216 titles financed for 570,988 billion, 31 titles financed for 39, 44 billion and 107 financed titles for 245.137 billion; in summary, a total of 354 titles, out of the 556 of the period, for a total of 855.565 billion, that is 38.7% of the 2206,000 billion corresponding to the total cost of the Italian film production of the period ). The other consensual data seems obvious: that, being so dramatically financially and market profitably, the average (and overall) trend of film production in Italy tends to look at the products in terms of product consumption, consistent with it, on television (and home) video ) which is the only alternative route to the increasingly narrow one of the 30 million cinema-ticket spectators (Italian) in the cinema. Hence the continuous entry on the big screen, in particular in the comic sector, of characters made popular by the small screen (in 1997 Three men and one leg, with the televisions Aldo, Giovanni and Giacomo, was one of the three greatest seasonal hits), the progressive settlement of cinematographic writing on the canons of a simplified television script, the delivery of our cinema in the hands of Mediaset and the Cecchi Gori Group, which operate with integrated organizations (despite the timid anti-monopoly measures) and with very important television interests. Without that, contrary to what was done in RAI between the end of the sixties and the beginning of the seventies, an appreciable cinematographic policy of the state television emerges, which gives back to the cinema a little of the very that it has stolen over the years. It is true that, precisely for this purpose, and under both political and category pressure, RAI recently promoted a special RAI-cinema company, chaired by Giuliano Montaldo, who should operate precisely in the sector. But it is still too early to evaluate the results of the initiative, which will appear clear no earlier than a couple of years. In the last decade, however, both private and public TV have continued to take from the cinema and almost never to give. A cultural evaluation In this state, and in the discouraged climate that ensues, the problem of a cultural evaluation of Italian cinema has arisen on several occasions (of which the Pesaro Special Event is just one example): a complex discourse because if, from On the one hand, it is almost inevitable that such an acute commodity crisis will also have significant consequences on the inspiration of the authors, on the thematic and problematic choices of the subjects, on the concrete feasibility of some projects, perhaps even very beautiful, but unthinkable in a production system that can count on the full market profitability of no more than a dozen national films, on the other, the severity of some foreign judgments (the exclusion from the 2000 Cannes Film Festival was accompanied by the constant rejection of the Berlin Film Festival towards the our cinema),the constant foreign interest in our great classics (the Antonioni, the Fellini, the Visconti for whom the retrospective demand not only does not decrease but grows), and instead clearly decreasing towards contemporary Italian cinema, seem to support that the crisis of our cinema also invests its cultural quality. On the other hand, the economic-commodity-production framework has significant consequences on the so-called production modes, that is, to quote from another work by the curator of the Pesaro exhibition, V. Zagarrio ( Italian cinema nineties , Venice, Marsilio, 1998) , who knows what he is talking about because he is also a film director: consequences for the screenplay , so "you don't work enough on the subject and the treatment, they don't write enough drafts of the screenplay"; at the level of the work with the actors, that "the director [...] sees maybe only on the day of shooting", when "for the rehearsals he has to take away precious time from the relationship with the director of photography and with the rest of the troupe who has a thousand problems"; at the level of the preparation , which "practically does not exist: in that sudden fall the preparation is only a hasty ritual"; at the level of direction , given that "assuming that the basics are there, the director, once the financial package of the film is closed, is already cooked. He is so stressed by unspeakable anxieties, by unrepeatable humiliations but necessary to start the project, he is so tired of months of script, exhausted by the guerrilla warfare with the production, which should (now) go on vacation.edition that "is usually not budgeted" as if the film could "mount itself, once shot, by autopoiesis. And instead it is the most delicate moment"; to finish at the level of distribution , launch , delivery in the hall , where all the knots come to a head because for the launch there is no money (while - we add - for a product made in the USA, to be launched in our colonial market, the advertising and launch budget is generally higher than the average production cost of an entire feature film), because the operator sees Italian cinema with a horror estimate and in any case as soon as he can disassemble the film, because the public is wary of the national film, because there is no more criticism, because, finally, the television dedicates newscasts and extensive interviews to any American trash-film , as long as it is divistic and noisy, but to Italian cinema it does not even reserve a glance distracted. This being the case with regard to production methods, and given the premises of the economic-commodity framework, the fact that Italian cinema survives, despite internal and external marginalization, must be considered a real miracle; that, despite everything, about 950 feature films were made and released in the period 1990-1999; that for good or bad many 'directors of failure' (product failure, of course) have been able to continue working; that not a few were able to make their debut (including, to limit themselves to some of the most recent, Gabriele Muccino, Riccardo Milani, Alessandro Piva, Giovanni Davide Maderna, Nina Di Majo, Luciano Ligabue, Anna di Francisca); that some beginners of the late eighties or early nineties have by now an appreciable filmography (to give some examples: Silvio Soldini, Cristina Comencini, Sergio Rubini, Michele Placido, Marco Bechis, Maurizio Zaccaro, Giuseppe Piccioni, Guido Chiesa, Daniele Luchetti, Francesca Archibugi, Mario Martone, Carlo Mazzacurati, Pasquale Pozzessere, Vito Zagarrio, Umberto Marino, Massimo Martella, Francesco Calogero , Paolo Virzì, Gianluca Maria Tavarelli, Mimmo Calopresti, Leonardo Pieraccioni, Davide Ferrario, Aurelio Grimaldi, Antonio Capuano, Enzo Monteleone, Franz Wetzl, Giovanni Veronesi, Salvatore Maira, Marco Tullio Giordana, Egidio Eronico, Alessandro D'Alatri, Giacomo Campiotti) ; alongside the classics, the now almost debutant classics of the seventies-early eighties (Gianni Amelio, Luigi Faccini, Nanni Moretti, Gabriele Salvatores, Salvatore Piscicelli, Peter Del Monte, Carlo Verdone, Giuseppe Bertolucci, are always active Giuseppe Tornatore, Marco Risi, Francesco Nuti, Alessandro Benvenuti, Roberto Benigni, Maurizio Nichetti); that there is even an authorial tendency, partially or radically, 'experimental' (Silvano Agosti, Gianni Amelio, Paolo Benvenuti, Giuseppe Bertolucci, Ciprì & Maresco, Pappi Corsicato, Tonino De Bernardi, Antonietta De Lillo, Giuseppe M. Gaudino, Gianikian & Lucchi , Franco Piavoli, Roberta Torre, to name a few). Of course, those who say that the Italian cinema of the nineties has the same 'quality' and the same 'level' as neorealistic cinema (when Rossellini, Visconti, De Sica-Zavattini were in the flower and there were masterpieces such as, in 1947 -48, that there is even an authorial tendency, partially or radically, 'experimental' (Silvano Agosti, Gianni Amelio, Paolo Benvenuti, Giuseppe Bertolucci, Ciprì & Maresco, Pappi Corsicato, Tonino De Bernardi, Antonietta De Lillo, Giuseppe M. Gaudino, Gianikian & Lucchi , Franco Piavoli, Roberta Torre, to name a few). Of course, those who say that the Italian cinema of the nineties has the same 'quality' and the same 'level' as neorealistic cinema (when Rossellini, Visconti, De Sica-Zavattini were in the flower and there were masterpieces such as, in 1947 -48, that there is even an authorial tendency, partially or radically, 'experimental' (Silvano Agosti, Gianni Amelio, Paolo Benvenuti, Giuseppe Bertolucci, Ciprì & Maresco, Pappi Corsicato, Tonino De Bernardi, Antonietta De Lillo, Giuseppe M. Gaudino, Gianikian & Lucchi , Franco Piavoli, Roberta Torre, to name a few). Of course, those who say that the Italian cinema of the nineties has the same 'quality' and the same 'level' as neorealistic cinema (when Rossellini, Visconti, De Sica-Zavattini were in the flower and there were masterpieces such as, in 1947 -48, Gaudino, Gianikian & Lucchi, Franco Piavoli, Roberta Torre, to name a few). Of course, those who say that the Italian cinema of the nineties has the same 'quality' and the same 'level' as neorealistic cinema (when Rossellini, Visconti, De Sica-Zavattini were in the flower and there were masterpieces such as, in 1947 -48, Gaudino, Gianikian & Lucchi, Franco Piavoli, Roberta Torre, to name a few). Of course, those who say that the Italian cinema of the nineties has the same 'quality' and the same 'level' as neorealistic cinema (when Rossellini, Visconti, De Sica-Zavattini were in the flower and there were masterpieces such as, in 1947 -48,Germany Year Zero , The Bicycle Thief and The Earth Trembles ) or the cinema of the sixties (when they went out Rocco and His Brothers and The Leopard , The sweet life and 8 and 1 / 2 , the adventure and the night ) literally gives the numbers . Although a transalpine cinéphile , A. Bichon, author of a love dictionary towards Italian cinema ( Les années Moretti , Annecy, Acadra Distribution, 1999) counted among those 950 titles of the nineties an impressive harvest of chefs-d ' oeuvre absolus (due only to a highly improper use of the definition of a masterpiece), the Italian cinema of the last decade is light years away from the great masterpieces (this time, yes!) of the Italian cinema of the second forties and the two following decades, nor do I think that there are many Antonioni, De Sica, Fellini, Rossellini or Visconti around. However, the observation, even if necessary (and to reiterate, in front of the uncontrolled 'masterpieces', ready to see an extraordinary piece of work in every film, perhaps barely dignified), cannot motivate a negative judgment on the quality of contemporary Italian cinema: even in France the current leading filmmakers seem somewhat distant from the group that appeared between the late 1950s and early 1960s (Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Alain Resnais, Eric Rohmer, etc.); and in Germany the new film generation appears distant from that large group of filmmakers (from Alexander Kluge to Rainer Werner Fassbinder, from Edgar Reitz to Werner Herzog) that crowded the new German cinema; while the best British directors, from Kenneth Loach to Stephen Frears, are of the generation that debuted, respectively, in the early seventies and eighties. In short, in cinema, neither more nor less than in art, music, literature or theater, there are seasons quantitatively and qualitatively rich in talents and decidedly poorer seasons, in terms of quantity and quality of the authors; but this is a completely physiological fact. What matters most is the average quality of inspiration, the average prevalence of the subjects, the frequency of stories, feelings and characters of a certain type and, above all, the correspondence between the moods and the real problems of the country and how much of them they find some direct or indirect mirror image on the screens. If these were decidedly opaque in the decade preceding the 1980s, the same judgment would appear unfair in the 1990s, particularly since the entry into force of a new system of subsidies and financing (starting from 1994, that is) has given a relative new boost to production, not without some positive echo also from the market. It is now true that film production is the terrain that seems to be affected by twenty years of 'social and moral disengagement' (Francesco Maselli) and that the more it seems to reflect the 'confused, shallow' reality (Francesco Rosi) of the times. Cinema, the 'art of the visible', is always what makes us grasp it more and better social and moral disengagement '(Francesco Maselli) and which most seems to reflect the' confused, shallow 'reality (Francesco Rosi) of the times. Cinema, the 'art of the visible', is always what makes us grasp it more and better social and moral disengagement '(Francesco Maselli) and which most seems to reflect the' confused, shallow 'reality (Francesco Rosi) of the times. Cinema, the 'art of the visible', is always what makes us grasp it more and betterZeitgeist, the spirit of the time, even when the times seem very far from the spirit. Italian cinema, then, with its tradition (at times, all too categorical) of commitment - that 'ethics of aesthetics' that characterized neorealism - and with the clarity (at times, all too artificial) that for years Ideology gave him, could not fail to be particularly affected by the supervening precariousness of ethics and the ruinous collapse of ideologies. Hence, I believe, the 'committed minimalism' that characterizes the recent, and current, Italian cinema: in the twofold sense, on the one hand, that it is generally about small themes, small ideas, small thoughts, small feelings, small stories, little characters, matter, I happened to write elsewhere, to "Soldini's bread and tulips , where the smile has a constant melancholy turn), while also the representation of the idyll (see the perhaps overrated, but certainly not trivial, A loveof Tavarelli), although generally conjugated on late adolescent or bitterly post-adolescent tones, appears to be characterized by the impossibility and the invisibility of feelings. In short, after many seasons of disengaged postmodernism, the most recent Italian cinema seems in some way to want to hang on to reality, even if it lacks the imaginative skills to transfigure it and the visionary ability to transcend it, and if, consequently, the 'realistic' thrust to understand (and represent) History, to know how to read just a little beyond the appearances of the visible, ends up being watered down, or completely lost, in the smallness of the stories . This seems to justify the severity of a frontally negative judgment like that of Mario Perniola (Cinema and the new frontiers of art , in The cinema of the transition , cit.): "Italian cinema, with few exceptions ... is mostly a reaction cinema to the information revolution and to the new capitalism; closed in the story of private events or deepened in the abjection, nostalgic, passatist, intimate, often sentimental, foreign if not hostile to any proof of greatness, it does not seem to me that he managed to interpret and express his time ". For this reason, I believe that Ciprì & Maresco's cinema ( The uncle of Brooklyn , Totò who lived twice ), together - mutatis mutandis - with that of Gaudino ( Giro di moune between land and sea ), is not to say the best ( I have always been horrified by the rankings applied to aesthetics: in any case, in the nineties, we have works of beautiful quality such as, to name a few titles: The siege of Bernardo Bertolucci, Francesco Maselli's companion , The Prince of Homburg of Marco Bellocchio, The legend of the pianist on the ocean by Giuseppe Tornatore, The sweet sound of life by Giuseppe Bertolucci,The thief of children by Gianni Amelio, Bread and Tulips by Silvio Soldini, Life is beautiful by Roberto Benigni, Out of the world by Giuseppe Piccioni, The body of the soul by Salvatore Piscicelli, Confortorio by Paolo Benvenuti, Garage Olimpo by Marco Bechis, Dear diary of Nanni Moretti, I prefer the sound of the sea by Mimmo Calopresti, The secret of the old wood by Ermanno Olmi, The good life by Paolo Virzì and many others) but the most suitable for these years of transition and very slow overcoming of the impassefrom the eighties. Ciprì & Maresco start from the degradation of a post-atomic Palermo and relocate its forms of ruin in an abstract, almost metaphysical universe, even if inhabited by a ostentatiously shameless and often deformed corporality, surrounded by symbolic debris and characterized by a distorted iconology, made of piled up rubble, dark puddles, putrid sewage, and placed, when not in desolate fields and under leaden skies, in foul-smelling toilets, in troglodytic spaces, in precariously furnished halls, between peeling walls. The explicit experimentalism of Ciprì & Maresco's cinema does not yet authorize us to speak of a 'style', of an authorial writing intended as a brand, in short, of a definitive 'poetic world'; but it is the first time, albeit experimentally, that the ethical-political degradation of a reality becomes degradation of the visible-narratable and that the 'content' and its 'forms' appear consubstantial. Despite the relevant diversity, something roughly similar does Gaudino: the image of Pozzuoli and its people appears, inTurn of moons between land and seacrushed, unstable, indefinite, like the Puteolan earth by a perennial bradyseism; while the story agmatically aggregates 'hand machine' and field / counterfield, classic sequence and montage plans, narrative voice and long dialogical passages in narrow puteolano, steady linear looks and 'bradyseismic' visions oscillating as for an earthquake, persistent redundancies and lightning ellipses. Also in this excruciating cinema of malaise a new 'ethics of aesthetics' is enunciated which, for the first time, seems to have made the final accounts with the neorealistic fathers (how far away are the, albeit present, classic models, such as Visconti Sicily or the Neapolitan horizons of Rosi!), proposing a cinema also in this case characterized by the impossibility of an 'ordinary' representation.as a whole the new millennium. But it is from there, or from those parts, that we must start: because it is not in the habitual quiet, in the nostalgic pacification, in the self-contemplative inteneration , in the sobbed lacrimae rerum or in the plaintive whispers that this long transition towards the unknowable can produce a cinema appropriate to it, which helps to understand and live the dark seasons of the present. If everything seems to have become nothing, how do you build a cinema of nothing by continuing to represent something? repertoire Cinematography before cinema The beginnings The birth of cinematography can be traced back to the numerous experiments on the vision of moving objects developed during the 19th century, starting from the studies of the English physicist Peter Mark Roget (1824). An important impulse came from the adoption of the transparent and sensitive film roll, developed by the American George Eastman (1888), and from the inventions of Thomas Alva Edison who, for strictly industrial interests, built the kinetoscope, a vision device in 1893 individual, through a slot protected by a lens, of a sequence of photographic images at a speed of 48 per second. The chronophotographic tables created by the English photographer Eadweard Muybridge to document the various stages of animal and human movement and the first projections with the zoopraxiscope, device designed by him for viewing bodies in action; the fixed plate chronophotographer of Étienne-Jules Marey, French physiologist, who translated movement into graphic terms and measurable values, subtracting the changeability of living organisms from the inaccuracies of the human eye to return them to the gaze in the 'certain form of geometry'; the studies on the geotropic movement of plants by the botanist Wilhelm Pfeffer are all elements that characterize the context of the invention of cinema. At its origins there are no projects that concern entertainment or entertainment or aesthetic issues. Cinema was born in a cultural climate permeated by positivistic and scientistic ideologies, like the perfected product of technical inventions aimed at the visual reproduction of movement. The push towards the analytical observation exercised by the progress of natural sciences takes place in the use of photography and in the attempt to record the components of the phenomenon of the movement of bodies in space. A crossroads between photography and the illusory restitution experiments of movement, cinema is understood in the culture of the time as a means of mirror reproduction of reality, a laboratory instrument, of analysis, to be placed at the service of a critical vision, of an observation immune to impressionism. The history of cinema as a show begins in 1895 with the success of the first screenings of the Lumière brothers at the Gran Café on the Boulevard des Capucines in Paris. Probably, when Auguste and Louis Lumière, among the most famous photographers of the time, began to use the cameras in front of the exit of the workshops or in the La Ciotat station taking in short documentary actions subjects or episodes taken from everyday life ( The exit from the factory , The arrival of a train , 1895) , they did not imagine opening a new chapter of human expression with their sequences on screen and for a paying audience or being the initiators of a 'seventh art', as Ricciotto Canudo defined it: they probably thought only of extending the field of action of this type of equipment from the universe of scientific experimentalism to that of information, of the communication of visual data derived from any type of reality. From science to magic From the operation of sequencing different shots in the documentaries, the first filmmakers gained the awareness that - beyond the premises or the strictly reproductive intentions of the experiments at Lumière - the camera could put itself actively in relation to the real space: put focus on things from different angles, include or exclude characters, rearrange the material according to a time not coinciding with the real duration of the actions, reverse the order of events, return the movement but also slow it down or speed it up. The 'neutral' reproductions of dynamic fragments of reality had the possibility of translating into short stories or narrations capable of involving the emotional reactions of the spectators much more than their cognitive attention. In a short time, the 'fantastic' cinematography of another French pioneer, Georges Méliès, creator of a 'filmed theater' created with multiple tricks, contrasted with the type of topical cinematography. The dimension of the fantastic began to interfere with the realistic instance, which qualified the nature of the medium anyway, and to the temporal alteration possibilities were added those derived from technical progress, connected to the tricks of disappearance, ubiquity, superimpression, doubling, dreamlike superposition. With his debut in 1896, when he founded Star Film, Méliès decidedly transported cinema to that dimension of the 'magic' to which titles also allude ( The Journey to the Moon , 1902; The Kingdom of the Fairies , 1903;The journey through the impossible , 1905). Cinema has always been considered as oriented according to two ways: the realistic one (informative, documentary, scientific, reproductive) of the Lumière and the fantastic one of Méliès in an antithesis never exceeded but full of ambiguity because - noted Jean-Luc Godard - fidelity reproductive can spill over into the territory of fantastic recreation, and imaginative non-referentiality can be at the root of scientific 'doing', capturing truer aspects of any description limited to the surface of things. While the advent and development of cinema will favor the reconstitution of naturalistic canons by proposing the models of nineteenth-century painting and literature, precisely the With the success of the first films, from 1896 production companies were set up, first in France and in the United States (Pathé, Gaumont, Eclair, Lumière, Edison Biograph, Vitagraph) then in other countries, favoring the rise of the various national cinemas . From a technical point of view, the innovations of the Brighton School (alternation of the first floor and the total floors), the formal expedients of Italian cinematography (use of the tracking shot, more sophisticated editing solutions) and the lesson of the American David W. Griffith, at early 20th century, they accelerated the refinement of the film's narrative structure. Especially with Griffith the camera and the assembly discover new expressive forms. The introduction of flash back and soft focus(blur of the background on which the character in the foreground is located), the use of indoor and outdoor shots as a function of contrast, the invention of parallel editing (alternation of stories linked together not by relationships of space and time, but with the symbolic meaning that their combination assumes), the multiplication of the visual angles through multiple cameras, the alternation between the objective and the subjective narrative - innovations present in his film Intolerance (1916) - transform the picture of cinematography for the complexity of the narrative plot and technical devices. The history of cinema began as an artistic language with its own characteristics, like the figurative arts, theater and literature. repertoire Italian cinema from its origins to the 1980s Silent cinema The beginnings of Italian cinema date back to 1895, the year in which Filoteo Alberini patented the kinetograph, a machine for shooting, printing and showing film. After the initial experimentation of short documentary films, Alberini founded the first exposure theater and shot using a large number of extras The taking of Rome (1905), a reconstruction of the events of 1870 and the first historical film, genre that in Italy will have much luck alongside the sentimental drama. Several production houses were set up, such as the Cines of Alberini, Itala, Pasquali and Ambrosio, which with The last days of Pompeii(1908) achieved international success. Typically Italian socio-cultural and environmental elements contributed to the fashion of historical-spectacular films: the ease of engaging low-priced extras in an overpopulated country, with economically depressed areas, the memory of the past and the rhetorical exaltation of Roman times, the possibility of scenic setting within monumental and natural frames congenial to the subjects. The cinema explored the whole past: imperial Rome, the Greek historical-mythological repertoire, the wars of the Risorgimento, with a taste based on naive philology and entrusted to spectacular formal solutions supported by pomp and scenographic gigantism. He also turned to Homer, Dante, Alessandro Dumas, Shakespeare. Giovanni Pastrone, with the name of Piero Fosco, made The Fall of Troy(1910), the first blockbuster in the history of cinema, which was followed by Quo vadis? (1913) by Enrico Guazzoni, Spartaco (1913) by Giovanni Novelli Vidali and above all Cabiria (1914) by Pastrone, with captions signed by D'Annunzio, a film in which the popular figure of Maciste asserted himself and which in the artistic use of the tracking shot and in the complexity of the technical-formal arrangements and of the editing it anticipated the subsequent evolutions of American cinema, influencing in some respects also the style of Griffith. Inferno (1909) by Giuseppe de Liguoro, with scenes inspired by the romantic illustrations by Gustave Doré, uses a skilful coloring of the film in order to accentuate the dark and contrasted light. The Italian cinema thus launched imposed itself on the international public, alternating the historical trend with the sentimental dramas that after 1914 marked the popularity of divas such as Lydia Quaranta, Italy Almirante Manzini, Francesca Bertini, Lyda Borelli, Lina Cavalieri, protagonists that are implausible, for gestures exaggerated and pompous language, of works inspired by the novels of D'Annunzio (Carmine Gallone, La donna nuda , 1914; Avatar, 1915). More than the subject or the stage effectiveness, the presence of a famous diva counted. In its centrality the diva exercised an all-out control over the product, had its own writers and directors at the production house. The overestimation of the role of the protagonist was reflected in the naive or bizarre scripts, with excesses intended to accelerate the decline of the genre. The cinema of Nino Martoglio, the animator of a Sicilian dialectal theater based on texts by Rosso di S. Secondo, Pirandello, Verga, reached greater authenticity, with choices aimed mainly at social problems and a direction in which Martoglio experimented with the effectiveness of contrasting editing. In the years following the First World War, Italian cinema was losing prestige on the international market and gradually exhausted its strands: neither the worldly drama, which had offered with Il fuoco di Pastrone (1915) one of its most refined examples, nor the spectacular film, supplanted by American production, nor the films entrusted to the interpretation of the glories of the theater, such as Eleonora Duse or Ermete Zacconi, managed to revive the fate of national cinematography. The advent of sound A decisive resumption of film production followed the introduction of sound. The first spoken film made in Italy was Gennaro Righelli's song of love (1929), based on a short story by Pirandello. With the advent of fascism, cinema was also largely influenced by propaganda purposes. The grandiose historical reconstructions of the Risorgimento age ( Villafranca di Giovacchino Forzano, 1933; Teresa Confalonieri di Guido Brignone, 1934) or Roman ( Scipione l'Africano di Carmine Gallone, 1937) and, even more, the re-enactments highlights of the fascist revolution ( Righelli's Blue Army , 1932; black shirtdi Forzano, 1933) or colonial expansion ( White Squadron by Augusto Genina, 1936). Meanwhile, a new generation of directors was emerging, with Alessandro Blasetti, who ventured into many different genres offering one of his most interesting works with 1860 (1933), and with Mario Camerini, specializing in light comedy ( Gli che che mascalzoni ! , 1932 ; The three-pointed hat , 1934). It is interesting to note that in the 1930s the comparative figures for the receipts of Italian and American films (the US production is quantitatively more present than the European ones) indicate the popularity and success of the national product among the public. In 1932 the average income of the USA film was 27,357 lire against 50,773 lire for the Italian one; in 1933, against an average income of the American film equal to 28,327 lire, there was a return of 55,797 lire for the national film; in 1934, the US film collected 22,193 lire and the Italian one 29,000. The preferences of the public towards the national product become even more marked after 1938 when the imposition of a monopoly regime limits the American offer. War movies and newsreels Towards realism. The years of the war conflict, at least until 1943, are profitable on the production level and confirm the success of Italian cinema, which exceeds 50% of the takings. The international offer is not blocked by autarchic restrictions: French, German, Spanish, and even British and American films circulate until the fall of fascism. The favorite genres of audiences and producers are light comedy, with its singing, farcical, sentimental variants, historical costume films, fictional biographies, melodramas, adaptations of nineteenth-century works, filmed versions of popular narrative and appendix. Particularly successful is the cinema of the 'white telephones' of Hollywood origin, a kind of escapist film so called for the presence in the furnishings of white telephones, snobbish symbols of a high bourgeois social class proposed to the public as an 'ideal model': an oleographic and fictitious universe, unrelated to current affairs, unreal in the setting and topography. These are tearful and contrasted stories or 'good living room' comedies as it happens inCastelli in aria (1938) by Genina, Manon Lescaut (1938) by Gallone, Scarlet Roses (1939) with which Vittorio De Sica made his debut, The surprises of the wagon-bed (1940) by Giampaolo Rosmino, Turbamento (1941) by Brignone. However, already in Montevergine (1938) by Carlo Campogalliani, The department stores (1939) by Camerini, An adventure by Salvator Rosa (1939) by Blasetti, Beyond the love (1940) by Gallone, there is a glimpse of the need to travel new streets finding a figure more adherent to the experience and the typical traits of the Italian people. The call to abandon any 'abstractionism' to enter the reality of the country also comes from the film criticism of the period, in the weeklies L'Illustration Italiana (founded by Emilio Treves), Oggi (born on the initiative of Arrigo Benedetti and Mario Pannunzio) and Tempo(directed by Arnoldo Mondadori), who underline, with different nuances, how the taste of the public has changed, more interested in witnessing the stunts of a plane in battle ( Conquest of the air by Romolo Marcellini, 1939; A pilot returns by Roberto Rossellini , 1941) that to artificial and melense events. The war accelerates the process towards a realistic turn of film production, also influenced by the French models, both raw and poetic, of Alba tragica by Marcel Carné, played by Jean Gabin and set in infamous bistros and popular casoni of the Parisian suburbs, and Towards a lifeby Jean Renoir, appreciated for the 'masterful effectiveness' with which he makes places and characters. On the one hand, critics reject the 'decadent' values of French cinema and fear its social aspect, because it fits into 'sordid slums', affecting 'morality', on the other it urges Italian directors to follow its stylistic and expressive forms . The same ambivalent attitude of attraction / repulsion characterizes the relationship with American cinema, which exports the films of Frank Capra, of John Ford ( Red Shadows) and the faces of divism (Carole Lombard, Clark Gable, Gary Cooper, Katharine Hepburn): in general we regret the old western cinema of the years 1933-37, and we tend to instrumentally to support an alleged 'drop in quality' over the years 1939-40 when America is felt as an 'enemy country'; likewise, divism is considered the typical phenomenon of a society experiencing a decline in customs due to 'too much democracy'. The need for reality stimulated by the war chronicles will find more complete expression in the film by Luchino Visconti Ossessione (1942), which marks a watershed and the official debut of 'neorealism'. In Obsession the daily life of the popular classes is narrated for the first time in a style that refers to the lesson of Renoir's 'poetic realism' (of which Visconti was a long assistant in France), in the setting based on contrasting tones (internal gloomy and bright exteriors), in-depth study of the characters and in the analysis of the motivations that explain their behavior. The movies of LIGHT. The laws of April 30, 1926 and those of July 6, 1940 make newsreels and war documentaries mandatory in daily screenings. The newsreels of the LUCE Institute (the Educational Cinematic Union, a technical institution established in 1924 for political propaganda, dependent on the Ministry for Popular Culture) and the INCOM documentaries (weekly information rotogravure) also support the less obvious addresses of Mussolini's politics , piloting public opinion according to the directives of the regime, in favor first of the 'non-belligerence' (September 1939-June 1940), subsequently (from 1940 onwards) of the direct intervention alongside Germany. In the period of neutrality, LIGHT offers the image of a powerful, modern country, at the forefront of industry and shipbuilding, of a state attentive to the well-being of citizens, prompted to promote economic and cultural development. His cameras linger on all the spectacular aspects of political life: ceremonies, celebrations, meetings according to precise techniques and scenographic frames that multiply the crowds and give plastic prominence to the Duce's gestures. Services are dedicated to the extracurricular formations promoted by the Balilla National Opera for the education of young people to fascist values and to the vast construction activity in prog
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[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 20:49 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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cinema The complex of artistic, technical and industrial activities that contribute to the realization of cinematographic shows (films) and also all of them, as a total work, as a concrete expression of art in the field of fantasy or information tool, of scientific documentation, for educational, informative and recreational purposes. 1. C. and art Not long after the invention of the new medium, a theoretical debate opened up in the world of culture, very lively in the 1920s, on how to define c., On what its areas and prerogatives should be. A theory of c was consolidated. as an artistic expression, as a new language destined for great results and developments. The temptation of many, however, was to apply to c. the same theories already consolidated for other arts rather than investigating its autonomous characteristics and there was no lack of controversy on the part of those who denied c. character of art, or they considered it a simple reproduction technique. Reflections of a more strictly aesthetic nature were accompanied by considerations on the obstacles represented by the economic apparatus, as well as lazy resistances with respect to the cinematographic metaphor that was too far removed from the ways and forms already consolidated for the other arts. There were those who argued that films could only narrate, represent the chain of events, but the cinematographic language expanded in fields unknown to the word, without any subordination to theater, literature or other forms, with an autonomy that soon brought in search of its characteristic stylistic components: movement, the particular use of time, the visuality ( J. Epstein , L. Delluc ), up to formulate hypotheses of c. 'pure', free from any relationship with reality. The concept of editing, especially among Soviet and later French authors and theorists (e.g., LV Kulešov , J. Mitry), was another much discussed topic, due to the effects produced by the juxtaposition of the shots in the construction phase of the film, through the manipulation of the material shot. 2. The birth of cinema 2.1 The originsThe origins of c. must be traced in the numerous experiments on the vision of moving objects that developed during the 19th century. starting from the studies started (1824) by the English physicist PM Roget. A major turning point occurred with the adoption of the transparent and sensitive film roll (film), developed by G. Eastman (1888), and above all with the inventions of TA Edison , who, driven by properly industrial interests, built in 1889 the kinetoscope, which allowed the viewing, through a slot protected by a lens, of a photographic film (at the speed of 48 images per second) and which soon spread to the showrooms of the main American and European cities. In the following years there were numerous attempts to project the films of the kinetoscope on the screen: especially in America where CF Jenkins made the first animated projection show in 1894, followed in 1895 by W. Latham and T. Armat , which however reported little favor of public; inGermany in the meantime there were the screenings of the Anschütz brothers, M. Skladanowski and O. Messter. Un successo assai maggiore riportò il cinematografo di Louis Lumière (coadiuvato dal fratello Auguste), tanto che usualmente si fa cominciare la storia del c. proprio dalla sua prima proiezione di fronte a un pubblico pagante, effettuata il 28 dicembre 1895 nel Salon Indien del Grand Café del Boulevard des Capucines a Parigi, di una serie di film-documentari di 16 o 17 m (della durata di un paio di minuti ciascuno), la cui finalità preminente era quella di cogliere scene movimentate. Il cinematografo, che in breve si diffuse in tutto il mondo (e il cui nome si estese pertanto a significare l’intero campo di attività), era contemporaneamente macchina da presa, proiettore e macchina da stampa, capace di riprendere e proiettare le immagini fissate sul nastro sensibile mediante un sistema ottico-meccanico a movimento intermittente; esso deve gran parte del suo successo alla tecnica assai raffinata di L. Lumière, uno dei fotografi più celebri del suo tempo, e alla sua scelta di soggetti tratti dalla vita quotidiana, che ebbero la capacità di affascinare il pubblico, attratto dall’apparizione sullo schermo di ambienti e facce familiari o ingenuamente impaurito dal progressivo ingrandirsi sullo schermo di una sopraggiungente locomotiva. A questo tipo di c. d’attualità si contrappose ben presto, in un’antitesi mai definitivamente superata, il c. fantastico di un altro pioniere francese, G. Méliès, volto al contrario a realizzare una sorta di teatro filmato: è a Méliès, soprannominato il ‘Giulio Verne’ della cinematografia, che si deve l’ideazione della maggior parte dei trucchi cinematografici (sostituzione per arresto, sovrimpressioni, dissolvenze, composizioni fotografiche, esposizioni multiple, sdoppiamento dei personaggi, modellini, riprese attraverso un acquario ecc.), e la costruzione nel 1897 del primo teatro di posa, dove girò la quasi totalità dei suoi film e da cui non si staccò più, fino a perdere i contatti con le ulteriori evoluzioni, che si susseguivano peraltro senza sosta, dell’ancor giovanissima settima arte, come fu soprannominato il cinema. Fattore determinante di tale continua trasformazione dell’arte cinematografica (fenomeno che si protrae ancora ai giorni nostri) è l’aspetto eminentemente industriale del c. (a causa dell’alto costo di un film), che spinge pertanto alla ricerca di tecniche e di risultati sempre nuovi, capaci di conquistare il favore del pubblico; di conseguenza la storia del c. non può prescindere dall’analisi dei suoi aspetti industriali e quindi economici, tecnici, sociali. 2.2 Le prime cinematografie nazionaliA partire dal 1896 si costituirono le prime grandi case di produzione, dapprima in Francia e negli Stati Uniti (Pathé, Gaumont, Éclair, Lumière, Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph), poi negli altri paesi, favorendo così il sorgere di cinematografie nazionali. Dopo Méliès, la Francia continuò a distinguersi con le opere dell’abile e prolifico F. Zecca, il regista della Pathé, di L. Feuillade, il regista della Gaumont, con i primi film d’arte, che tentavano di nobilitare il c. avvicinandolo al teatro, e soprattutto con i suoi attori comici: André Deed, noto in Italia con il nome di Cretinetti, e Max Linder, che alle complicate gag di Deed sostituì l’assai più delicata comicità dell’imprevisto e dell’equivoco. In Inghilterra si ebbero i film di W. Paul e quelli della scuola di Brighton (J. Williamson, G.A. Smith, A. Collins), che, girati per lo più in esterni, mostravano un particolare interesse verso la realtà sociale e adottavano tecniche d’avanguardia, quali l’alternanza tra primi piani e piani generali (nei celebri inseguimenti tra vittime, persecutori e salvatori), che diverranno poi patrimonio del genere western. Negli Stati Uniti E.S. Porter, riprendendo in gran parte gli insegnamenti della scuola di Brighton, realizzò film a evoluto impianto narrativo, mentre W. McCutcheon e J.S. Blackton girarono numerose opere di tipo realistico. Il c. danese fu caratterizzato dalla realizzazione di drammi mondani (diretti da A. Blom, U. Gad, H. Madsen), nei quali si impose per la prima volta il divismo su scala internazionale (in particolare con l’attrice Asta Nielsen del film Abisso, 1910). Il c. svedese fu dominato dalle figure dei due registi-attori V. Sjöstrom e M. Stiller, entrambi volti alla creazione di uno stile nazionale, nel quale grande importanza aveva il paesaggio, e presso i quali si formarono attori che in breve raggiunsero una celebrità internazionale (G. Molander, E. Erastoff, L. Hanson, G. Ekman, G. Garbo); in Svezia si recarono nel 1920 anche i due principali registi danesi, B. Christensen e C.T. Dreyer, che vi realizzò solo un film prima di trasferirsi a Berlino. In Italy, where several production houses were set up (Cines, Ambrosio, Itala, Pasquali), the achievements of a historical nature predominated, which culminated in the production of G. Pastrone with the first colossals in the history of the c .: The fall of Troia (1910) and especially Cabiria (1914), in which the complexity of the technical devices (especially in the use of the tracking shot) and of the assembly anticipate the subsequent evolutions of c. US; greater authenticity reached c. by N. Martoglio , mainly attentive to social problems, in which the effectiveness of contrast editing was experimented, while worldly dramas progressively prevailed (directed by N. Oxilia , M. Caserini ,E. Ghione , C. Gallone , A. Genina ), which lent themselves well to enhancing the often slightly emphasized skills of the stars of the time: I. Almirante Manzini , L. Borelli , F. Bertini , L. Cavalieri , A Capozzi , M. Bonnard , E. Ghione ,A. Novelli, to remember only some of the most famous. The rapid flowering of c. Italian decayed after the war. 2.3 The supremacy of c. USIn the United States, the Edison-Biograph trust (the Motion Picture Patent Company) dominated under the leadership of Jeremiah Kennedy; it is in this context that DW Griffith , one of the fathers of the c.was formed: after about 400 films shot between 1908 and 1912 as artistic director of Biograph (in which he discovered and trained actors such asM. Sennett, M. Pickford , L. Gish ), moved to Triangle Film together with TH Ince and M. Sennett, and it is thanks to these three names that c. American reached its apogee. Griffith made Birth of a nation (1915), a film inspired by a clearly racist vision, which however had the merit of revolutionizing the painting of c. American, both for the complexity of the narrative plot, and above all for the gigantic commercial success, which gave way to sumptuous creations, of very high cost. In the next film, Intolerance (1916), his masterpiece, Griffith perfected the technique of alternate editing, but reported a resounding failure of the audience, perhaps due to the technique too advanced in relation to the times. Ince knew how to give an artistic dimension to the western genre, both as director and as supervisor of his collaborators (in particular R. Barker, in whose films WS Hart, one of the greatest actors of the c. western). Sennett created his own comic style, between grotesque and nonsense (also taking advantage of a refined editing technique), and was an exceptional discoverer of talents, including:M. Normand , R. (Fatty) Arbuckle , L. Fazenda, B. Keaton , M. Swain, G. Swanson , H. Lloyd , H. Langdon, B. Crosby and above all a young English mime on tour in the United States, C. Chaplin , who, signed in 1914, was able to win the favor of the public, perhaps like no other. Since his first rehearsals, Chaplin, also for the typically theatrical training, privileged the role of the actor and the acting towards the gag: this is already visible in the role of Charlie Chas (played during the period with Sennett), but it appears all the more evident with the creation in 1915 of the character of Charlot, the coherence of which became one of the keys to understanding the succession of events over more than forty years: the social satire of the first short films was followed by works of greater complexity, in which the exaltation of intelligence and good feelings merged with the denunciation of social injustice in a poetics of sentiment, almost always devoid of indulgent tearfulness. Coinciding with the First World War and the consequent crisis of c. European, American cinema acquired an undisputed commercial supremacy: the production companies expanded and gave rise to concentration phenomena, such as Paramount, Fox, Universal, and above all United Artists formed by the three major stars of the time ( M. Pickford , D. Fairbanks ,C. Chaplin), which Griffith also joined. To the success of c. United States, which was reflected in the exceptional development ofHollywood, a town on the outskirts of Los Angeles intended almost exclusively for the production of films (in 1920 about 800 feature films were produced), both the technical superiority of the products of the United States contributed, and above all the extraordinary success that the star system achieved, for which the success of the films was entrusted not as much to the value of the directors as to the celebrity of the actors, who embodied stereotypical roles: W. Hart and T. Mix were the heroic cowboys, M. Pickford (the 'girlfriend of America') the naive and cheeky young girl, D. Fairbanksthe athletic and acrobatic swordsman, R. Valentino the fatal lover, Fatty the fat guy a little dumb and good-natured. CB De Mille particularly affirmed himself among the young directors , who in his very large and mainly commercial production knew how to make use of the cinematographic language perfected by Griffith. 3. The c. between the two wars 3.1 The c. expressionistInEuropec. was emerging. German, also as a result of the grouping in 1917 of the major producers in the UFA cartel ( Universum Film Aktiengesellschaft ); moreover the isolation caused by the war and the related technical development (of the optical and electrical equipment, of the Agfa film etc.) favored the formation of a national production. Thus there were on one hand the brilliant comedies and the colossal historical reconstructions of E. Lubitsch , who resumed the theatrical style of his master M. Reinhardt and who, later moved to the United States (1923), churned out elegant cinematic comedies and on the other the most valid proofs of expressionism andKammerspielcinematographic, the 'chamber theater' focused on the inner movements of the soul and on psychological dynamics: these two strands both led essentially to a screenwriter of considerable value, C. Mayer, to whom we owe the scripts of the main German films between 1920 and the 1925. Il gabinetto del Dr. Caligari(1919) fu il primo film espressionista: diretto da R. Wiene, in esso ebbero importanza determinante gli scenografi (i tre pittori espressionisti del gruppo Der Sturm: H. Warm, W. Röhrig, W. Reimann); prospettiva, illuminazione, forme, architettura, tutto fu piegato a descrivere l’inquietudine degli stati d’animo, quasi che il film fosse una serie di ‘disegni vivi’, dominati da una fantasia macabra e ossessiva e resi in forme estremamente stilizzate. Caligari ebbe una forte influenza sulla produzione seguente: Il Golem (1920) di P. Wegener, Destino (1921) di F. Lang, Nosferatu (1922) di F.W. Murnau, Ombre ammonitrici (1923) di A. Robison, Il gabinetto delle figure di cera (1924) di P. Leni. Il Kammerspiel, pur conservando il simbolismo e la stilizzazione propri dell’espressionismo, si definì programmaticamente come un ritorno al realismo, nel rispetto rigoroso delle tre unità della tragedia classica; esso si fondava sulla semplicità della vicenda (ed era pertanto pressoché privo di didascalie), suoi temi ricorrenti erano l’inesorabilità della sorte umana e il crimine. Tra le opere più rappresentative: La rotaia (1921) e La notte di S. Silvestro (1923) del regista di origine romena L. Pick, La scala di servizio (1921) di Jessner e Leni, e in particolare L’ultima risata (1924) di Murnau, sul tema dell’inscindibile rapporto tra l’uomo e la sua ‘divisa’, che segnò l’apogeo e la conclusione del Kammerspiel. Murnau nel 1927 si trasferì negli Stati Uniti, dove realizzò Aurora (1927) e Tabu (1931, in collaborazione con il documentarista R. Flaherty), mentre in Germania proseguiva (fino all’avvento del nazismo) l’opera di F. Lang, volta soprattutto ad analizzare criticamente l’ingiustizia sociale. 3.2 Impressionismo e nuove avanguardie Negli stessi anni in Francia si andò formando una scuola di giovani registi intorno al romanziere, critico e regista L. Delluc, comunemente nota come impressionismo o prima avanguardia: loro intento preminente era quello di sviluppare l’aspetto tecnico-linguistico della cinematografia, oltre a calare la vita nel c. e far penetrare più profondamente il c. nella realtà sociale (furono tra l’altro i primi fondatori di cineclub); tra di essi si ricordano: A. Gance, sperimentatore di tecniche assai ardite e sofisticate; M. L’Herbier, caratterizzato da uno stile assai raffinato e dall’uso cospicuo di trucchi cinematografici; J. Epstein, in seguito autore di film improntati a un estremo sperimentalismo; G. Dulac, nota soprattutto per La souriante Madame Beudet (1922). Alla prima seguì presto la seconda avanguardia, intimamente legata alle correnti d’avanguardia delle arti figurative (in particolar modo al dadaismo): si ebbero così parallelamente ad analoghe esperienze di V. Eggeling in Svezia e di H. Richter in Germania, i film del pittore-fotografo dadaista Man Ray, del pittore cubista F. Léger, e il celebre Intermezzo di R. Clair (1924, su sceneggiatura del dadaista F. Picabia e musiche di E. Satie). È nell’ambito dell’avanguardia francese che prende le mosse la produzione di tre registi di particolare interesse: J. Cocteau, lo spagnolo L. Buñuel e l’olandese J. Ivens. Cocteau, che era anche poeta, pittore, paroliere, attore, realizzò una serie di film estremamente personali, che ben rispecchiavano gli aspetti più tipici della cultura francese, anche se talora appaiono appesantiti da un eccessivo estetismo. Buñuel realizzò i due più importanti film surrealisti (Un chien andalou, 1928, in collaborazione con il pittore S. Dalí; L’âge d’or, 1930). Ivens, al contrario, dall’avanguardia approdò al documentario di impegno sociale, affrontando la realtà di molti paesi, dall’URSS alla Spagna, dagli Stati Uniti a Cuba, al Cile, al Vietnam. Altro esponente di rilievo del documentario fu l’americano di origine irlandese R. Flaherty, soprannominato il ‘J.-J. Rousseau’ del cinema. Decisive importance in the history of c. had Soviet production in the aftermath of the 1917 revolution. In 1919 Lenin had nationalized the film industry and had affirmed the priority of c. compared to the other arts, thus favoring the formation on a large scale of experiments and avant-gardes. It is in this context that the cutting system of the montage is perfected, whereby the object takes on life only when it is put in relation with other objects, presented as part of a synthesis of separate images. Unlike the first great father of cinema, Griffith, who based his language largely on the commonplaces of America of the time and used the editing essentially to tie a story together (often in effect), the Soviet message was highly innovative and their editing took on an ideological value. Among the numerous experiences, some retain a paradigmatic value: thekinoglaz (cine-eye) ofD. Vertovit was not a direct grasp of reality, but became "the possibility of making the invisible visible, of making the dark clear"; SM Ejzenštejn signed masterpieces such as Strike (1924), The battleship Potemkin (1925), October(1928) and later films focusing on the relationship between power and the masses, between tyranny and democracy, characterized by great formal accuracy (also taking advantage of Prokof′ev's music, in what was called the 'audio synthesis -visiva '); VI Pudovkin's films essentially deal with the theme of the progressive acquisition of class consciousness by characters carefully delineated in their psychology; the lyrical objectivity of the Ukrainian AP Dovženko well reflected his theoretical claims that "the possibility of making authentic films is given when the film ceases to be the result of a precise ideology". In the last years of c. silent continued the supremacy of the Hollywood film industry, financed by economic power by reason of the famous formula ofW. Hays, president of the MPPDA ( Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of America ), according to which «the goods follow the film; wherever the American film penetrates we sell a greater quantity of American products ». Alongside a typically cassette production (which had the main exponent in CB De Mille), the works of some European directors who moved to the United States, such as E. von Stroheim and J. von Sternberg , who with L'angelo blue (filmed in Germany in 1930) had created the myth of M. Dietrich (one of the two great divas of these years, together withG. Garbo). It also continued its developmentthe schoolAmerican comedian, where, alongside the Chaplinian production, the figures of H. Lloyd , optimistic and sentimental, H. Langdon, the goofer (directed in his best films by the young F. Capra ), and above allBuster Keaton, the man who never laughs, impassive in the face of bizarre and complex situations in which he hunts. 3.3 The advent of soundwas marked, in the autumn of 1927, by the American film The jazz singer , directed by a director of little notoriety, A. Crosland , and entrusted above all to the virtuosity of a famous music-hall singer,Al Jolson; the enormous success of this film favored the diffusion of sound and already in 1928 the first entirely spoken film was produced, Lights ofNew Yorkby B. Foy. The sound, which in the early years was severely opposed by a large part of the public and filmmakers, caused profound changes within the c., Opening the doors to the repertoire and the theatrical (and melodrama) style and favoring the development and the rise of new film genres. In fact, the gangster genre received a new impetus (think, for example, of Scarface , 1932, by H. Hawks , later author of other excellent films), as also developed the sophisticated comedy , in which, alongside the successes who continued to produce Lubitsch, a young Sicilian director came to light,F. Capra, who with his confident optimism was able to interpret the climate of the Rooseveltian New Deal ; a type of absurd comedy was also affirmed, in which the word had an important role, withS. Laurel and O. Hardy (Stanlio and Ollio) and especially with i Marx brothers. The sound also favored the resumption of c. national team, decreasing Hollywood's ability to conquer foreign markets, as the dubbing technique has not yet been developed. 3.4 Il c. di propaganda e nuove tendenzeIn Germania, oltre a F. Lang, si segnalavano G.W. Pabst con Westfront 1918 (1930), sugli orrori della guerra, e L’opera da tre soldi (1931), dall’omonima opera di B. Brecht, L. Sagan con Ragazze in uniforme (1931) e S. Dudow con Kuhle Wampe (1932), sulla disoccupazione giovanile, che fu vietato dalla censura; in seguito la politica culturale del nazismo troncò del tutto l’evoluzione del c. tedesco, ridotto a mera funzione di propaganda. In Francia si andò formando la scuola detta del realismo poetico: ne fecero parte R. Clair, J. Feyder, J. Vigo e J. Renoir, già distintosi nell’epoca del muto. Soprattutto le opere di Renoir hanno influenzato in modo determinante il successivo sviluppo del c. francese e in parte anche di quello italiano. Nell’ambito del realismo poetico si formarono inoltre M. Carné e J. Becker. In Italia, negli anni 1930, a fianco dei film di più o meno esplicita propaganda del regime (diretti da C. Gallone, A. Genina, A. Palermi, G. Alessandrini), le sole opere di un certo valore furono quelle di A. Blasetti e di M. Camerini, specializzatosi nella commedia leggera. Caratteristico lo stile dei telefoni bianchi (1936-43), così chiamato perché spesso nell’arredo di scena compariva un telefono bianco, status symbol del benessere sociale. In Inghilterra vi furono gli interessanti esordi di A. Asquith e di A. Hitchcock e si andò inoltre affermando la scuola documentaristica di J. Grierson, nella quale si formarono numerosi registi (P. Rotha, H. Jennings) e cui aderirono anche R. Flaherty e A. Cavalcanti. Nel frattempo negli Stati Uniti si misero in evidenza tre registi particolarmente interessanti: l’irlandese J. Ford, che nella sua vastissima produzione (circa 130 film) si è distinto in particolare nel genere western, con film privi di retorica e capaci di mediare buona parte dei valori della società americana del tempo; l’alsaziano W. Wyler, che diresse per lo più film di derivazione letteraria o teatrale, con una grande attenzione formale, compiendo nello stesso tempo una rigorosa analisi della società borghese; l’attore-regista O. Welles, che si impose giovanissimo negli Stati Uniti con film assai validi anche per l’originalità delle soluzioni formali (il campo lungo, flashback, deformazioni fotografiche, inquadrature oblique), e che proseguì in Europa la sua attività, incentrata sulla contrapposizione tra il potere e l’egoismo da un lato e la libertà e l’autenticità dell’esistenza dall’altro. Considerable development also reached c. animated , especially with W. Disney , who in 1938 made the first of his many feature films ( Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ). This genre would have had a very articulated path finding great expressions between the 1990s and the new millennium. Great consideration deserves the work of CT Dreyer , master of cinematography, for the isolation in which he conducted his rigorous search for a style that was an instrument of interpretation of human nature, characterized by the close-ups of the faces and the extreme precision of the details . 4. The c. post-war period 4.1 NeorealismIf during theSecond World Warthe c. of the belligerent countries had mainly propaganda purposes, starting from 1942 a school was formed in Italy, cinematographic neorealism , destined to exert a profound influence in the history of cinema. Neorealism as it advocated the creation of a c. 'true', popular and national. In 1943 L. Visconti made Ossessione , where the daily life of the popular classes made its first appearance, narrated in a style that had been able to embrace the lesson of poetic realism (Visconti had long been Renoir's assistant); in the same year they were made (both based on a screenplay by C. Zavattini ) The children look at us by V. De Sica, who criticized the hypocrisy of the Italian family, and Four steps in the clouds by A. Blasetti , who, despite the brilliant comedy, denoted the assumption of a more popular and realistic style. Of fundamental importance in the history of neorealism wasRomeopen city (1945) by R. Rossellini , shot immediately after the liberation of Rome on the very places of the action, which imposed itself precisely because of its relevance and authenticity; Rossellini was followed by Paisà (1946), who described six episodes of the war in Italy from 1943 to 1945, and then took different paths, always characterized by extreme formal rigor. De Sica and Zavattini gave life to an effective picture of post-war Italy with films in which the authenticity of the description and the incisiveness of the social denunciation were sometimes supplanted by an easy sentimentality and a generic humanitarianism, while an abundant affirmation was asserting resistance production, with epic and spectacular tones ( The sun still rises, 1946, by A. Vergano; The bandit , 1946, by A. Lattuada ; Tragic hunting , 1947, by G. De Santis ). In 1948 Visconti made one of the best films of neorealism with La terra trema (1948), characterized by extreme realism and at the same time by a powerful plastic capacity, which was followed by numerous films, all of excellent quality (mostly transpositions of texts literary), focusing on the relationship between the world of affections and family ties and the social structure. In the context of c. the two authors formed a neorealist who, together with Visconti and Rossellini, represent the major personalities of c. post-war period: F. Fellini , who started alongside Rossellini but immediately revealed (from Lo sceicco bianco , 1952, to The Nights of Cabiria , 1957) a personal imagination, a remarkable ability to integrate oneirism and realism, and M. Antonioni , that in the same period (from Cronaca di un amore , 1950, to Il grido, 1956), opened c. Italian to the existential themes of European culture and industrial society creating a completely personal style. In those same years the push for renewal that emerged in the immediate post-war period deteriorated in the costume comedy, in the regional and satirical sketch (of which Totò , creator of a comic heritage of exceptional mimic skills, was the notable protagonist), while new popular genres were growing , like the mythological and the melodrama . At the same time, there was a great development of the film market which saw the establishment of a national star system abroad ( S. Loren , G. Lollobrigida , A. Magnani ). 4.2 THE INTERNATIONAL PANORAMA. - Meanwhile in the United States the work of the Englishman A. Hitchcock continued, who perfected the genre of suspense films according to modules of narrative elegance, even if mainly commercial, while a generation of young directors was emerging, who advocated a . more adherent to the real and whose activity was therefore initially severely hindered by the Commission for anti-American activities: J. Dassin , E. Kazan , J. Huston , J. Losey , F. Zinnemann , N. Ray , R Brooks , R. Aldrich , B. Wilder. In the mid-1950s, to face a serious crisis in c. American, due both to the poor average level of production and to the ever-growing competition of television, new techniques were introduced (3 D or three-dimensional cinema, cinerama, cinemascope, relief, triple screen, panoramic screens, etc.), which favored the creation of blockbusters ( Vera Cruz , 1955; The Ten Commandments , 1956; Ben Hur , 1959; Lawrence of Arabia , 1962; This mad, mad, mad, mad world, 1963; My fair lady , 1964; Doctor Zhivago , 1965). In France, while the activity of poetic realism continued, R. Bresson and J. Tati established themselves . The first, in his creations characterized by an extreme stylistic rigor (it is his definition that cinema "is not a show, but a writing"), essentially addresses the issue of the relationship between reality and individual and religious values;J. Tatihe is the creator of the extravagant Monsieur Hulot , whose delicate sensitivity is contrasted with a rough and superficial society. The suspense films of H.-G. Clouzot . The 1950s also saw the international affirmation of theJapanwith cinema (also called neorealistic) by K. Mizoguchi , H. Gosho , A. Kurosawa and S. Yamamoto . 5. The new c. and its developments 5.1 New trendsThe 1960s saw the affirmation, almost everywhere, of those movements, commonly defined as new c. , which were programmatically opposed to c. traditional; their main characteristics are the refusal of the traditional canons of the cinematographic narrative, the experimentation of new techniques (for example, the sequence plan instead of the short-cut editing), a greater social commitment and the search for an alternative diffusion system, independent of commercial conditions. In Francia si formò (attorno al critico A. Bazin e alla rivista Cahiers du Cinéma) il movimento della nouvelle vague. Comprendeva autori piuttosto diversi tra loro e che assai presto presero strade divergenti, accomunati però dalla ricerca di uno stile più cinematografico e meno letterario (rifacendosi pertanto a Renoir, Rossellini, Bresson, Hitchcock); tra questi: C. Chabrol, F. Truffaut, A. Resnais, J.-L. Godard, J. Rivette, L. Malle, E. Rohmer. Contemporaneo alla nouvelle vague francese è il movimento del free c. inglese (parallelo a quello degli ‘arrabbiati’ in letteratura), costituito da giovani registi che, continuando (e in parte criticando) la scuola documentaristica di Grierson, realizzarono dapprima documentari sulla vita delle classi popolari inglesi e quindi film più o meno duramente polemici nei confronti del sistema; tra questi: il critico e regista L. Anderson, K. Reisz, T. Richardson, J. Schlesinger. Risultati di maggior valore conseguirono due registi americani trasferitisi a Londra: J. Losey, che analizza con uno stile rigoroso e personale i rapporti umani all’interno di una società profondamente divisa in classi, e S. Kubrick, egualmente impegnato in un’opera di riflessione sulla società moderna. In Svezia, I. Bergman nella sua produzione, in cui spaziò da temi metafisici ai problemi della coppia, a riflessioni sull’arte, a temi schiettamente lirici, seppe dar vita a un raffinato stile personale. Accanto a lui fermenti di novità comparvero nell’attività di registi maggiormente politicizzati, quali B. Widerberg, V. Sjöman, J. Troell. In Germany, the slogan "freedom from conventional experiences, from industry coercions, from the influences of external groups" was the basis of the Junger deutscher Film of whichA. Kluge, J.-M. Straub, V. Schlöndorff, P. Fleischmann the most interesting personalities appear. Commitment, revision of historiographies and official values, courageous experimentation of intertwining and languages characterized Czechoslovakiala nová vlna with V. Chytilova, J. Němec, J. Jrěs, J. Menzel,E. Schorm, I. Passer, S. Uher and, above all, M. Forman (later moved to the United States). On liberation from all forms of colonialism, social denunciation, a profound link with national traditions was founded in Brazil by N. Pereira's cinema nôvo , G. Rocha (the major theorist and author), L. Hirszman, R. Guerra , PC Saraceni , C. Diegues . 5.2 Towards c. copyrightAll these movements were avant-garde phenomena, which were integrated more or less quickly into the logic of the market. Globally they represent the last significant explosion of formal, productive, ideal research and also the last great reaction of the world of c. in a mass communications system marked by television hegemony. The acquisitions, however, had profound echo: for example. in the influence of a staging based on the uniqueness of the unmounted shot (the plan-sequence ), which found in the cinema of the Hungarian M. Jancsó and the Greek T. Angelòpulos an obsessive and ritual application; in the continuous perceptual experimentation and in the documentary research of new american cinemaand the underground by J. Mekas , R. Kramer, S. Brakhage, A. Warhol , K. Anger ; and especially in the practice of a c. author, capable of communicating knowledge, emotions and ideas before canceling out in the search for entertainment. All this creates the conditions for growth or development of directors such as the Poles A. Wajda , R. Polański , J. Skolimovski, K. Zanussi , the Hungarians A. Kovács and I. Szabó , the Japanese N. Shima, S. Imamura , S. Terayama , Y. Yoshida, the Swiss A. Tanner and C. Goretta , the SpanishC. Saura and L. Berlanga , the Portuguese M. de Oliveira , the Yugoslavian D. Makavejev , the Canadian M. Snow, the Chileans M. Littin and R. Ruiz , the Bolivian J. Sanjinés, the Mexican A. Ripstein, the Filipino L. Brocka, the Iranians D. Mehrjui and S. Shadid-Saless and, finally, for c. Soviet S. Pardzanov, T. Abuladze, VM Šukšin , M. Chuciev, L. Šepitko, O. Ioseliani , E. and G. Šengelaja, A. Končalovskij and, in particular, A. Tarkovskij. 5.3 From costume comedy to crime mysteryIn Italy, where these trends were represented by E. Olmi , M. Ferreri , PP Pasolini , M. Bellocchio , B. Bertolucci , the brothers P. and V. Taviani , the comedy of costume , rich grotesque and satirical kaleidoscope in whichthe rapid transformations of a society that from peasant to industrial becamemirrored (thanks to authors-actors like A. Sordi , N. Manfredi , U. Tognazzi , V. Gassman ). Among the most versatile comedy directors are M. Monicelli, D. Risi , L. Comencini , in addition to P. Germi and A. Pietrangeli , in which there is no lack of veins of skepticism; G. Pontecorvo , F. Rosi , E. Petri worked instead on the path of a denunciation and political and social investigation . The cinema of V. Zurlini and E. Scola , F. Maselli and M. Bolognini , V. De Seta and N. Loy should also be mentioned ; in the context of the so-called Italian western , S. Leone , of the yellow genus ,D. Silver . The 1960s were also characterized by a genuine interest in the emergence of new cinemas, from the Indian one (which boasted authors such as S. Ray and M. Sen ), to the Cuban one (with directors such as TG Alea and JG Espinosa), the Chinese one (from the vast market since the 1930s and 1940s), while interesting news came from Africa, where the c. he is taking the initial steps (the first feature is from 1955 and 1963 is Borom Saret by Senegalese U. Sembene ). Among the Arab countries, Egypt was particularly noteworthy with directors such as Y. Chahine , S. Abu Seif, T. Salah, while in Turkey, where c. it was present since before the war, A. Yilmaz emerged. 6. Lights and shadows of the 1970s In the 1970s the c. of the USA experienced a profound renewal thanks to independent productions and to authors such as J. Cassavetes , D. Hopper , R. Altman , W. Allen , P. Bogdanovich , FF Coppola , B. De Palma , S. Peckinpah , A. Penn , AJ Pakula , W. Friedkin , S. Pollack , B. Rafelson , M. Scorsese , P. Kaufman,M. Cimino. These directors recoded the models of cinematographic fiction (inexhaustibly rethinking and reworking the classic c.) And developed complex representations of contemporary reality affected by European influence, also establishing a new star system ( Al Pacino , R. De Niro , D Hoffman , J. Fonda , R. Redford ) who skillfully integrated the major actors of previous generations ( M. Brando , P. Newman , R. Mitchum ). In the international arena, the work of masters of past generations continued such as Hitchcock ( Frenzy , 1972), Buñuel ( The discreet charm of the bourgeoisie , 1972), Bergman ( Scenes from a wedding , 1974), Kurosawa ( Dersu Uzala , 1975). In Germany meanwhile a generation of directors was making headway ( RW Fassbinder , W. Herzog , W. Wenders , M. von Trotta ) who, in the wake of the Junger deutscher Film, imposed itself on the international market with films with a refined and metaphorical style and content often severely polemical towards the German social system. A group of directors of solid professionalism (P. Noyce, B. Beresford, F. Schepisi and P. Weir ) highlightedAustralia. In Italy the 1970s saw the great post-war authors still give firm testimony of their presence: from V. De Sica ( Il giardino dei Finzi Contini , 1971) to R. Rossellini who began experimenting historical-didactic programs for television; by L. Visconti ( Death aVenice, 1971) to F. Fellini ( Amarcord , 1973), to Antonioni ( Profession: reporter , 1975), while in the wake of the liberating utopias of the previous decade, directors such as B. Bertolucci ( Last tango in Paris , 1972 ) and M. Ferreri ( The great binge , 1973). In the second half of the decade a new generation of directors such as P. Avati , N. Moretti , P. Del Monte , G. Amelio , S. Piscicelli began, and at the beginning of the following decade a group of authors-actors mostly coming from cabaret and television, likeR. Benigni , C. Verdone , M. Troisi , F. Nuti. Common feature of this new c. Italian was finding himself operating in a reality deeply conditioned by the uncontrolled proliferation of television broadcasting liberalized in 1976, to which both the sharp contraction of the market and the considerable difficulty of the experimentation spaces were due. Also in the United States, where during the 1970s production strategies were established that established relations between c. and television, the end of the decade coincided with the prevalence of a purely commercial interest directed in particular to the world of pre-adolescents, the most substantial audience. The great successes that followed (based on special effects and a clever synthesis of fairy tale, adventure and science fiction: from Star Wars ofG. Lucas , 1977, at ET the extraterrestrial of S. Spielberg , 1982) demonstrate how the big screen tended to amplify beyond measure / "> measure its own spectacular resources, while simplifying narrative references. The c. elsewhere he was able to make himself a spokesperson for significant socio-cultural transformations (as in the case of the Soviet Union - A. German , G. Panfilov, K. Muratova, E. Klimov , A. Sokurov - linked to the new political course of Gorbachev ) or witness to painful realities (as in the case of S. Cissé from Mali and the Turkish Y. Güney ). 7. The end of the 20th century At the end of the first 100 years of life of the c., Contradictory signals were therefore outlined: on the one hand the crisis of the large room appeared an irreversible phenomenon (the collective ritual replaced by the individual consumption of television), on the other the affirmation of a c. of international dimensions, capable of producing shows such as The Last Emperor by B. Bertolucci (1987, 9 Oscar awards) and Balla coi lupi by K. Costner (1990), which was counterbalanced by the affirmation of mirror works of peculiar environments such as The time of the gypsies by E. Kusturica (1988), Red lanterns byZ. Yimou (1991), The thief of children of G. Amelio(1992), sometimes awarded by Oscar as Nuovo cinema Paradiso by G. Tornatore (1987) and Mediterraneo by G. Salvatores (1991). Along with the increasingly rare masterpieces of epochal style and relevance, such as W. Wenders' The Sky Above Berlin (1987) and the K. Kieślovski's Decalogue (1989), the new fictional worlds of the cinema of D. Lynch , the militant cinema of K. Loach , the refined illustration of the British universe by J. Ivory . At the same time in Spain the creative flair of P. Almodóvar , the ideal follower of L. Buñuel 's cinema , was affirmed . The author of a female cinema, centered on characters of strong women is the New Zealander J. Campion . A completely unique figure is also that of the Canadian D. Cronenberg , author of experimental films in style and daring in content, rich in philosophical and psychoanalytic implications. Also from Canada comes J. Cameron, the creator of Titanic (1997), a colossal work, the greatest income in the history of cinema, which has stimulated the revival of apparently dormant forms of divism. For several years in the United States an independent production company, Miramax, managed by the brothers B. and H. Weinstein, had begun to offer works of great interest and to launch a new generation of authors, destined to 'colonize' in a short time. Hollywood: Q. Tarantino , K. Smith, A. Minghella , S. Soderbergh, T. Haynes and L. Hallström. Instead, African American cinema developed around the personality of its most significant representative, Spike Lee; alongside him, apart from the isolated cases of two authors such as Mario Van Peebles and J. Singleton, it was some actors who made the African American community within Hollywood increasingly prominent; among them are D. Washington , SL Jackson ,W. Smith, J. Foxx and H. Berry. The one of Hong Kong and the Korean one were the other two most lively films on the Asian continent: successful postmoder
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Image
In the etymology of the word, the ambiguities that animated the centuries-old debate on the status and function of images are already looming. The etymology is the Latin imago, inis: on the one hand 'imitation', on the other 'visible form'. The oscillations of meaning are complementary. There. it was conceived both as a reproduction of the reality that is offered to the view (the eikon of the Greeks), and as the result of a formalization: not simply a reproduction of the sensitive, therefore, but a product, a formal construction. In these latter meanings, the distinction between i is strengthened. and res: the i., in this case, is recognized as appearance (the Latin simulacrum), or even phantasm (from the Greek phantasma, that is "dream", "vision"). So, on the one hand it imitates the thing; dall ' other indicates the distance from the object it (re) produces. Representation / construction, res / form, absence / presence: the complex polarity between imitation and expression that informs the philosophical debate on the image is articulated on these tensions.
Theoretical reflection has problematized these dialectics, expressing, despite the multiformity of the positions, two main orientations: a line of thought has enhanced the mimetic, realistic aspects of the i., Reflecting on the possibility of bridging the distance between the representation and the represented; a second line, however, insisted on the i. not as a reproduction but as a production, as a closed formal system, endowed with its own laws. The essence of the i. from the latter perspective, cinema resides not in fidelity, but in the gap with respect to the referent: its aesthetic and intellectual productivity is encouraged precisely by its differentiating factors.THE IMAGE AND THE WORLD
The ontological image
André Bazintries to go beyond the reductive conception of i. as a reproduction of reality to make analogy the form of a real ontology. According to Bazin between the referent (the being) and the copy (the image) there would be an ontological similarity before a morphological one: the i. in fact "it benefits from a transference of reality from the thing to its reproduction" (Bazin 1958; trad. it. 1986², p. 8). He identifies the basis of cinematographic realism in reproductive objectivity and in the absence of man 'replaced' by the photographic eye. To these characteristics cinema adds the actual duration of things, movement. Bazin emphasizes the depth of field of the i. cinematic and the sequence plan, instead rejecting the logic of analytic editing, to recover the complex ambiguity of the "natural" vision. There. it must safeguard the continuity of the existing, highlighting the intrinsic mystery of the world itself. In Bazini's thought one also finds that reciprocal movement between subject and object highlighted by phenomenology: the world is revealed through the i. precisely because in it the objective structures of reality and the subjectivity of a spectatorial gaze that freely constructs its path of openness to truth are reached mutually. In light of this ontological perspective, Bazin re-reads the history of the i. cinema, distinguishing between the directors who believe in it and those who believe in reality. The first ( highlighting the intrinsic mystery of the world itself. In Bazini's thought one also finds that reciprocal movement between subject and object highlighted by phenomenology: the world is revealed through the i. precisely because in it the objective structures of reality and the subjectivity of a spectatorial gaze that freely constructs its path of openness to truth are reached mutually. In light of this ontological perspective, Bazin re-reads the history of the i. cinema, distinguishing between the directors who believe in it and those who believe in reality. The first ( highlighting the intrinsic mystery of the world itself. In Bazini's thought one also finds that reciprocal movement between subject and object highlighted by phenomenology: the world is revealed through the i. precisely because in it the objective structures of reality and the subjectivity of a spectatorial gaze that freely constructs its path of openness to truth are reached mutually. In light of this ontological perspective, Bazin re-reads the history of the i. cinema, distinguishing between the directors who believe in it and those who believe in reality. The first ( precisely because in it the objective structures of reality and the subjectivity of a spectatorial gaze that freely constructs its path of openness to truth are reached mutually. In light of this ontological perspective, Bazin re-reads the history of the i. cinema, distinguishing between directors who believe in it and those who believe in reality. The first ( precisely because in it the objective structures of reality and the subjectivity of a spectatorial gaze that freely constructs its path of openness to truth are reached mutually. In light of this ontological perspective, Bazin re-reads the history of the i. cinema, distinguishing between directors who believe in it and those who believe in reality. The first (David W. Griffith , Sergej M. Ejzenštejn , the directors of German silent cinema or those of the Hollywood of the classical period etc.) support the autonomy of the representation with respect to the represented and enhance the formal logics (the plastic components, the assembly etc.) . The latter, however, are convinced that the i. must reveal the deep structures of reality (just think of the use of depth of field in Orson Welles' cinema). The i. Self-referential Bazin contrasts the image-fact of Neorealism, capable of grasping reality in its immediate state, prior to meaning, and of restoring all its ontological ambiguity.
The image as an attestation of the world
Significativa è anche la riflessione sull'i. cinematografica condotta da Siegfried Kracauer. Per Kracauer essa eredita dalla fotografia una vocazione alla riproduzione e tende a restituire e attestare la realtà del fenomenico. Kracauer, tuttavia, si distingue dalla posizione ontologica di Bazin: l'i. non rivela l'essere, ma svolge piuttosto una funzione di documentazione dell'esistente, si presenta come una testimonianza del mondo eventualmente in grado di aprirsi agli aspetti meno valorizzati dalle consuete esperienze percettive (per es. il minuscolo, il transitorio, il casuale, l'inanimato). La quotidianità del mondo, materia grezza dell'i. cinematografica, si riscatta attraverso il cinema dalla banalità corrente, dalla stereotipia delle forme e ne esce sublimata, composta in una visione di-staccata dalla norma, in una particolare coniugazione tra la soggettività creativa dell'occhio umano e l'oggettività impersonale della riproduzione.
L'immagine-realtà
Nella riflessione di Pier Paolo Pasolini ‒ più vicina a una poetica personale che a una teoria ‒ la relazione ontologica tra l'i. cinematografica e la realtà arriva quasi all'identità, in quanto il suo significato, afferma, è tutto nella realtà, e il cinema coincide di fatto con essa. Di conseguenza l'i. del cinema è la lingua scritta della realtà, traduce il linguaggio dell'Essere. I segni del linguaggio dell'i., per Pasolini, non sono storicamente codificati: l'im-segno (così ne definisce l'unità espressiva) è illimitatamente offerto dal sordo caos delle cose, e il suo riconoscimento avviene non per convenzione quanto per una condivisione collettiva dell'esperienza dello sguardo in chiave archetipica e antropologica, sia pure variata dalle diversità psicologiche e sociali. Con tali premesse diventa decisivo interrogarsi non tanto sulla definizione pasoliniana dell'i., quanto sul suo concetto di realtà. La realtà, in Pasolini, è il mondo in divenire, dove soggetto e oggetto si appartengono e si relazionano. Il linguaggio opera dall'interno della realtà e consente alle cose non di essere rivelate da un punto di vista esterno, 'contemplativo', ma di autorivelarsi. L'i., dunque, è la cosa, coincide con essa perché costituisce l'unica possibilità per la cosa di definirsi, rispetto all'ambiguità originaria del mondo, diventando linguaggio. È quindi una visione che nasce nel soggetto per una sorta di pressione dall'interno della carne del mondo. Tra i. e mondo, quindi, vi sarà sempre una relazione non arbitraria o simbolica, ma di necessità ontologica. A differenza delle premesse ontologiche di Bazin (per il quale l'i. rivelava il reale ancora prima di essere linguaggio), Pasolini si concentra sulle strutture linguistiche dell'i. stessa per individuare una vera e propria "grammatica della cinelingua".
The image-movement and the image-time
The question on the structures of the I., starting from its condition of virtuality, was deepened in the early eighties by the philosopher Gilles Deleuze. In the state prior to perception, it constitutes a plane of immanence, it is the infinite of all i. and coincides with movement, it is image-movement: "it is the object, it is the very thing caught in movement as a continuous function" (Deleuze 1985; trad. it. 1989, p. 41). Among the i. of cinema and those of the world there is an absolute identity precisely in the ontological constituent of the movement. In its pure virtuality it is an actualizable and non-linguistic space: it is an 'enunciable'. In Deleuzian reflection the i. as enunciable it substantiates the cinematographic and founds as a possibility the actualized existence of the image-utterance, proper to the filmic. The relationships between virtual and current, between cinematographic and film, establish the complexity of the world and of cinema. The images-statement define the forms of classification of the images themselves. Deleuze proposes a first great tripartition of the image-movement: when it is related to a center of indeterminacy (in fact the subject) which subtracts movement from its indefiniteness, it becomes image-perception; the reaction to perception takes the form of an action, generating the image-action (an organic representation of the man-world relationship, situation-action that expresses the classic form of cinema); from perception to action there can be a perceptual restlessness, a hesitation in action, and it is in this intermediate state that the image-affection is determined, an expression of the quality and power of the possible (the close-up of a face in Griffith, the fragmented spaces of Robert Bresson etc.). The loosening of the links between perception and action, initiated by Italian Neorealism, marks the emergence of i. optical-sound as well. The organic man-world integration of classic cinema is put in crisis by modern cinema: situations are less and less defined, the gaze no longer generates action, but develops in pure vision of things, actions become floating, the prevailing l wandering, randomness. The construction of i. pure optical-sound, free from any sense-motor link with the body, deprived of a causal relationship, allows the cinema to access directly temporal and mental dimensions, a real image-time. If in the movement image the i. itself and the movement were inseparable but distinguishable, in the image-time become indiscernible: from the indirect representation of time we pass to its direct 'vision'. Perception, if it does not continue in action (the 'current' i), can return to the object and enter the circuits of the i. virtual. From this movement of return to virtuality, to i. as enunciable, the memory-images, the dream-images and the crystal-images emerge (the direct ones of time, in which the present that passes and the past that remains coexist)
L'immagine come configurazione formale
Nelle riflessioni sul realismo (v.) e l'ontologia dell'i. si afferma che lo scarto tra l'oggetto e la sua rappresentazione è prossimo alla coincidenza. I teorici che vedono in essa una struttura formale pongono invece l'accento sul fatto che ogni i. presuppone, accanto alla mimesis, anche una poiesis, ovvero una logica di produzione. E quindi teorici come Rudolf Arnheim e S.M. Ejzenštejn, pur sviluppando posizioni molto diverse, sono convinti che la costruzione dell'i. implichi l'attivazione di procedimenti compositivi e di una forte mediazione formale.
L'immagine differenziale
Arnheim moves in the theoretical orbit of Gestalt psychology. The i., In his opinion, is always a scheme, implies a mediation, a formal reorganization of the visible on the basis of the structures of perception. Its shape is defined by the mental patterns of perceptual subjects and the specific qualities of the medium. According to Arnheim the specificity of the i. cinematographic lies precisely in the reproductive deficits of cinema (the theoretical discourse that he develops refers primarily to silent cinema, obviously characterized by a strong hegemony of the visual). The 'differential' status of the i. filmica is the guarantee of cinema autonomy. Arnheim identifies the most important differentiating factors from reality: the projection on the flat surface of the framing of three-dimensional objects and spaces; a significant reduction in depth; the absence of color; the limits of the i., defined by the edges of the frame; the fragmentation of perceptual continuity, through assembly; the absence of non-visual perceptive stimuli (tactile, olfactory, sound, etc.). And cinema affirms its own artistic quality in articulating and enhancing the differentiating elements of the i. in a compositional framework characterized by the overcoming of the reproduction of the visible in favor of a new visual and dynamic form. absence of non-visual perceptive stimuli (tactile, olfactory, sound, etc.). And cinema affirms its own artistic quality in articulating and enhancing the differentiating elements of the i. in a compositional framework characterized by the overcoming of the reproduction of the visible in favor of a new visual and dynamic form. absence of non-visual perceptive stimuli (tactile, olfactory, sound, etc.). And cinema affirms its own artistic quality in articulating and enhancing the differentiating elements of the i. in a compositional framework characterized by the overcoming of the reproduction of the visible in favor of a new visual and dynamic form.
The constructive image
In the very rich theoretical thought of Ejzenštejn the specific quality of the i. filmica does not derive from the supposed mimetic vocation of the new medium. There. it must not be a reproduction of the data but a recombination of the visible elements and a generation of meaning. Through an articulated cinematographic formalization work of the sign, which finds the dominant operating principle in the assembly, it can shatter and expressly recompose the data, it can go beyond the representation of a particular referent to access a new dimension and produce a global eidetic meaning (i.e. linked to the intellectual function of the image-idea). Ejzenštejn distinguishes representation (izobraženie) from i. (obraz): the first concerns the object, its visible contours, it consists in the figuration of the features that immediately denote it and establish its limits, while the second mobilizes the sense of the object, knows how to grasp and exhibit its general structure (obobščenie). In the I., moreover, not only the nature of what is presented in it becomes visible, but also the attitude elaborated by the consciousness that realizes it. The representative size of the i. it constitutes a starting figurative material in the form of fragments: this material is the object of a structural redefinition that tends towards abstraction through the construction of an associative process. The concatenation between the fragments (assembly) is not reproductive, but productive: it does not return a predetermined totality, but builds a new structure of meaning, that was not present in the individual representative fragments: "with the combination of two representable we get the notation of something that is graphically unrepresentable [...]. But this is montage! Yes. It is the same thing we do in cinema when we put in relation to certain frames which appear to be unique from a representative point of view and neutral as regards meaning, in meaningful contexts and sequences "(1963-1970, 2nd vol .; trad. it. 1986, pp. 4-5). The construction work of the i. it is articulated on different levels of formal mediation: the first level is within the single frame, the cell of the film, and operates on the plastic composition, that is on the distribution / dislocation, on the 'cut' and the 'glimpse' of the different components of the scene at the inside the switchboard (switchboard), in order to highlight a "generalized compositional profile of the staging. The second level is the assembly of the fragments, their concatenation in a shape-rhythm, in a line of movement, in a dynamic image" (1963-1970, 2 ° vol .; trad. It. 1985, p. 319) motivated by a unity of meaning. The relationship of mutual penetration and unity between representation and i. it is also present in the first level, but becomes particularly productive in this phase of the assembly chain: "of the hooves that gallop, the head of a horse that runs, the rump of a horse that runs away. There are three representations. And only from their unification the sense of the image of the gallop of a horse arises in consciousness "(1963-1970, 2nd vol .; trad. it. 1985, p. 150). The last level is that of the audiovisual work: in this case it will be a matter of coordinating the visual and sound materials for the construction of a polyphonic structure. In every phase of construction of the i., The assembly is always responsible for producing the sense.
There. for Ejzenštejn it is essentially mental, an inner structure, therefore closer to metaphor (understood not in rhetorical key but as a dynamic of extension / conceptual generalization of figuration) than to the icon, or to the materiality of the visual. The dialectical structure of the production montage (formal projection of a wider dialectic, understood as the structural foundation of each phenomenon) is in fact proposed as a reproduction of the logical-elementary processes activated by the spectator: for this reason the process of constitution of the i. cinematographic mimes and together exhibits the process of formation of i. in the viewer. The i., Therefore, does not have an objective but mediated reality: in other words it exists not as a result that is given to the viewer,
The image-sign
Theories about i. filmic as a structure of transfiguration, as data and construction process, find in the semiotic reflection reasons for deepening and rearrangement. The known distinction, proposed by Charles S. Peirce, between the three types of sign (icon, index, symbol) also re-articulates the interpretation of i. cinematographic: the icon represents the object by way of similarity or analogy, the indexical sign implies a causal link between sign and referent, the symbolic sign is based on an entirely conventional relationship between the sign and the reference object. In i. cinematographic values can be found of all three types: iconic (analogue statute), indexical (ontological statute) and symbolic (cultural statute).
In the early sixties the profound renewal of theoretical reflection placed the questions on the i. at the center of the question of the linguistics of cinema, already developed by Russian formalists in the 1920s. Jean Mitry , while placing himself in controversy with the nascent semiology(v.) of cinema, identifies in the i. the matter of expression proper to the cinematographic language, and definitively recognizes its sign structure. Every i. filmic, says Mitry, is a two-degree sign: on the one hand, it is the sign of what it reproduces; on the other, organized in series, it becomes a sign a second time, within a discursive continuity which actually implies the existence of a language. According to Mitry, observes F. Casetti, "the filmic image is of the order of language first of all because, like any language, it establishes a parallel and autonomous universe that is not confused with that in which we live" (1993, pp. 77-78 ).
But the elaboration of a semiological theory on the i. cinematographic is the work of Christian Metz. There. in movement, he says, he establishes an analogical relationship with reality, the functioning of which implies the activation of the codes that intervene in the decoding of the real object. By highlighting this plurality of "technical", "mixed", "anthropological" codes that determine the analogy, Metz insists on the need to go beyond the analogy itself, considering the linguistic value of the i. film. The entrance of the i. in language it is ensured by the reciprocal relationship of i. themselves in large syntagmatic units, larger than the linguistic units and structured by a series of specific codes (machine movements, the so-called cinematic punctuation etc.) and non-specific. She. are articulated to
Beyond the different interpretations that emerged in cinema theory, the i. filmica has some basic characters that define its structure. First of all, it has a double meaning. On the one hand, as it is recorded and imprinted on the film; on the other, as, above all, projected and destined to appear on a screen: on the contrary, its actual objectification is obtained only in the screen projection. There. filmic must therefore be activated thanks to the projection mechanism and presents characteristics of impalpability, absence of visible contents and virtuality. It is therefore marked by the presence of a visual configuration and by the absence of the objects and people displayed. Even if the i. projected is an image-movement, in fact, the movement perceived by the spectator is the result of a perceptual process carried out by mixing physiological and intellectual functions, since the film is made up of a series of i. static, recorded frame by frame. Each ensemble imprinted on the film is always immobile, yet the cinema has an i. in perennial movement. There. filmica is the result of a projection that provides in the cinema of sound scrolling at 24 frames per second (from 12 to 20 during the silent phase) alternating with 24 i. black. It therefore comes out of black, is almost incorporated into black, even if it appears to the spectator completely free from it and in its apparent mobile continuity. A French theorist like Guy Fihman has defined this process of objectification of a image-movement through the concatenation of a set of i. static as the realization of the principles of Zeno's thought. According to Fihman (1979, p. 181) the cinema dates back to when Zeno conceived his philosophy. But, on the contrary, Deleuze, while not addressing the physiological and intellectual problems of perception, affirms the structurally new character of the i. film, which would imply a reorganization of the perception of the world.
Unlike an i. printed or painted, the filmic one is constituted by the dynamism of light, a sort of mobile material that outlines the composition and draws the iridescent and multiple form of the visible. Cinema writes with light, writes on light, constitutes a particular adventure in the universe of light, which is dynamic, constantly changing, and has additional mobility. There. filmica is a configuration of light, and is therefore a mobility in continuous transformation. The objects, the people impressed on the film are recreated and permanently transformed by the light, they develop and change thanks to the continuous and variable flows of brightness. Its fundamental character is traditionally considered the illusion (or impression) of reality. There. filmica generally presents a visual analogy with the world of phenomena and is organized in such a way as to guarantee an impression of reality not only thanks to the work of recording the visible on the film carried out by the camera, but also thanks to the incorporation of the movement and duration in the same i . projected. Just its dynamism seems to guarantee the effects of depth of space and almost of relief of objects and bodies. The illusion of reality, on the other hand, is reinforced by the elements of representation and figuration present in the image. In fact, it is strongly marked by multiple aspects of similarity with the referents, of substitute presentation of the same objects, of evocation through the description or portrait of something. These effects, which the condom registration process ensures, they are defined by the specific quality of the staging work which contributes to further developing the mere representative date in a figurative and visual dimension. The coordination of all elements of the visible in an i. coherently organized outlines the visual structure as a determined form, a formal configuration. P IN. filmic, then, the figurative dimension intertwines and overlaps the representative dimension, of which it constitutes a more advanced and elaborate stadial level. Not only in the staging of the directors most engaged in formal and pictorial drawing, but also in the direction of some authors linked above all to the recording of the visible, the i. successful present a
There. filmic therefore incorporates anthropomorphic representation and / or figuration, related to the action of living subjects and integrates them with a visualization work which constitutes a particular qualifying element of cinema. As a horizon of intertwining representation, figuration and visualization it does not have a prevailing nature of mirroring (reflection) of the world, but on the contrary it extends into the horizon that links the visual to its formal and mental reworking and therefore to the imaginary. In fact, its references may be psychic phantoms no less than visible phenomena and the representative and figurative articulations of i. together they attest to the contiguity of the visible screen with the imaginary, its definition in the psychic horizon rather than in the worldly one. We must not forget that the i. it is the point of confluence between the imaginary and the world, as Edgar Morin recalls in Le cinéma, ou l'homme imaginaire. On the other hand, the same meaning plane of i. it is marked by an overlap of layers of meaning, which attest to a structural widening of its semantic (and formal) implications. Ejzenštejn already pointed out the co-presence in the i. of the visual form and of the idea and its ability to transmit and / or produce ideas in the viewer (1963-1970, 5th vol .; trad. it. In the interest of the form, 1971). IS which attest to a structural expansion of its semantic (and formal) implications. Ejzenštejn already pointed out the co-presence in the i. of the visual form and of the idea and its ability to transmit and / or produce ideas in the viewer (1963-1970, 5th vol .; trad. it. In the interest of the form, 1971). IS which attest to a structural expansion of its semantic (and formal) implications. Ejzenštejn already pointed out the co-presence in the i. of the visual form and of the idea and its ability to transmit and / or produce ideas in the viewer (1963-1970, 5th vol .; trad. it. In the interest of the form, 1971). ISRoland Barthesmore recently he pointed out that the i. filmica produces different layers of meaning: a first descriptive and informative level, related to communication, a second symbolic level, which is then that of signification, and a more complex third level, linked to the significance and together with the (immaterial) materiality of the . and to its possible suggestions, an "evident, erratic, obstinate", "oversized", "excessive ... excess" sense (1970; trad. it. 1997, p. 116-17). According to Barthes this third sense is expressed for example. in some particular visual aspects of Ivan Groznij of Ejzenštejn: "the compactness of the courtiers' face, often, trodden, or smooth, distinct; the stupid nose of one, the fine drawing of the eyebrows of another, his washed-out blond, his white and purple complexion, filmic with respect to verbal texts and suggests a consideration of cinema in its particular visual configuration, against the operations of tracing it back to other relevant horizons (narratology, for example, language, ways of enunciation, according to the various waves In this perspective, there is no doubt that in its history cinema has elaborated not only different editing techniques or narrative structures, but also and above all different types of I., different models of filmic configuration of the visible. And these models constituted in a certain sense the first level of objectification and significance of the filmic text. The adventure of cinema is also the story of different visual macroforms, which therefore attest that the history of cinema is also a system of formal differences. Among the fundamental models of i. elaborated in the history of cinema it is worth remembering at least the following: 1) The i. hyperformalized developed in particular, but not only, in the silent period, by great authors, such asFritz Lang , Ejzenštejn, Georg W. Pabst, Robert Wiene, Marcel L'Herbier and Abel Gance . In this horizon it is possible to identify further articulations: the i. intensive-deformed Wiene and Expressionism, the i. plastic-geometric of Lang, the i. dialectic-conflictual of Ejzenštejn, the i. organic-pictorial of Friedrich W. Murnau etc.
2) The i. likely and strongly codified of Hollywood cinema, exactly programmed and made according to extremely high visual standards, which also define the visible and the non-visible (Howard Hawks, John Ford, Frank Capra , William Wyler etc.).
3) The image-made of the so-called cinema of the reality proper to French realism, Neorealism and part of the Nouvelle vague (Jean Renoir, Roberto Rossellini , the first films of Luchino Visconti, Jean-Luc Godard , François Truffaut, Jacques Rivette etc. .).
4) The color image, which outlines the visible through the dynamics of chromatic-expressive intensities (the chromatic-expressive i of Ejzenštejn, Vincente Minnelli , Michelangelo Antonioni, Bernardo Bertolucci, Stanley Kubrick, David Lynch etc.).
5) The i. experimental and non-referential, which attests to the richness and variety of avant-garde research, from abstract cinema to Surrealism, from Dada to the extreme experiences of the American Underground and on the horizon of vision metaphors (from Viking Eggeling to Fernand Léger, from Man Ray to Kenneth Anger, from Stan Brakhage to Andy Warhol).
Within these macro categories it is possible to identify further visual models. The strong stylization of Lang's geometric syncretism is profoundly different from the distorting stylization of Wiene's caligarism, the pop-simulative recreation of Godard of the second sixties is different from Pasolini's pictorial historicist nature. All these staging options, of course , are essential not only in relation to the specific configuration of the i., but in the objectification of the poetics and ideas of cinema of the various directors. The representation of the world is therefore not a structural character of the i. filmic, but is the result of a choice of direction. The narrative cinema, on the other hand, is not the only one existing: the avant-garde and the Underground have created another type of i. film, characterized by a very particular inventiveness and a strong self-reflective component. There. filmic is therefore a visual-dynamic composition, a configuration defined by the staging work, which sometimes makes use of the visual structures of the phenomena and at other times recreates and infinitely widens the horizon of the visible. Cinema is at the same time the i. Lang form and the i. made of Rossellini, the i. unconscious of Luis Buñuel and the metaphor of the i. from Brakhage. It is in what is seen and in what is not seen: in the i. and beyond it. which sometimes makes use of the visual structures of phenomena and other times it infinitely recreates and widens the horizon of the visible. Cinema is at the same time the i. Lang form and the i. made of Rossellini, the i. unconscious of Luis Buñuel and the metaphor of the i. from Brakhage. It is in what is seen and in what is not seen: in the i. and beyond it. which sometimes makes use of the visual structures of phenomena and other times it infinitely recreates and widens the horizon of the visible. Cinema is at the same time the i. Lang form and the i. made of Rossellini, the i. unconscious of Luis Buñuel and the metaphor of the i. from Brakhage. It is in what is seen and in what is not seen: in the i. and beyond it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Arnheim, Film als Kunst, Berlin 1932 (trad. It. Milan 1989²).
L'univers filmique , éd. IS. Souriau, Paris 1953.
R. Arnheim , Art and visual perception , Los Angeles 1954 (trad. It. Milan 1962).
E. Morin , Le cinéma, ou l'homme imaginaire , Paris 1956, 1977² (trad. It. Milan 1982).
A. Bazin , Qu'est-ce que le cinéma? , 1-4, Paris 1958-1962 (trad. It. Parz. Milan 1973, 1986²).
S. Kracauer, Theory of film , New York 1960 (trad. It. Film. Return to physical reality , Milan 1962).
J. Mitry, Esthétique et psychologie du cinéma , 2 vols., Paris 1963-1965.
SM Ejzenštejn , Izbrannye proizvede-nija v šesti tomach (Works selected in six volumes), Moskva 1963-1970, 2nd vol. (trad. it. General theory of assembly , Venice 1985 and The assembly , Venice 1986) and 5th vol. (trad. it. In the interest of the form, in "Black and White", 1971, 7-8).
Ch. Metz, Essais sur la signification au cinéma , Paris 1968 (trad. It. Semiology of cinema , Milan 1972).
R. Barthes, Le troisième sens: notes de recherches sur quelques programmes de SM Eisenstein , in "Cahiers du cinéma", 1970, 222 (trad. It. On cinema , Genoa 1997, pp. 116-31).
Ch. Metz, Essaissur la signification au cinéma II, Paris 1972 (trad. It. Signification in cinema , Milan 1975).
PP Pasolini, Heretical Empiricism , Milan 1972.
J.-F. Lyotard , L'acinéma , in "Revue d'esthétique", 1973, 2-4.
G. Fihman, Le cinéma data du jour où, in Du cinéma selon Vincennes, Table ronde sur l'enseignement du cinéma à l'Université de Paris VIII , Paris 1979, pp.181-89.
G. Deleuze, The image-mouvement , Paris 1983 (trad. It. Milan 1984).
S. Zunzunegui, Mirar la imagen, Bilbao 1984.
G. Deleuze, The image-temps , Paris 1985 (trad. It. Milan 1989).
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F. Jacques, J.-L. Leutrat, L'autre visible , Paris l998.
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Point of View For the. means the portion of space included in the two-dimensional visual framework, within the rectangular frame that delimits the projected image of the film, and again, in terms of duration, the minimum set of frames(v.) in sequence that outline a visible movement. On a theoretical level, if the single frame - whose standard format is that of a 35 mm wide film with a ratio with the height of the picture varying from 4/3, or 1.33, silent film standard, to 2 , 35 up to 2.55 (depending on whether the soundtrack was present on the film) of the Cinemascope - with its shape it forms the imprint of the visual picture (and therefore taken by itself it could be roughly compared to a letter from the the alphabet of cinematographic vision as a distinctive though not significant segment of the expressive dynamism of the image), the i., on the other hand, cannot be made to correspond to a simple visual word made up of frames, nor to a single statement; if anything, it corresponds to an ongoing description, that is, to the minimum denotation of a set of reference objects to which it refers in an analogical sense, which are found in a more or less complex relationship, a relationship whose evolution properly constitutes the narrative signifier of the filmic vision. As a chronological evolution of the photographic medium, in fact, the i. cinematographic describes first of all the events in their change, the gestures and the actions that involve a significant passage from one situation to another. The function of the i., In the semiotics of the discourse of cinema, is in dialectical relationship with that carried out by the montage, that is the sequential union of several i. different. In this sense, the editing can be made to correspond to a narrative connotation of the individual 'descriptions' expressed by i., In the span of an articulated sequence of filmic time. The variation of i. within the illusion of continuity that the image projected on the screen provides to the spectator's gaze, it is one of the foundations of cinematographic narration. The problem of a correct definition of the i. it becomes even more complicated when considering the sound film: as an audiovisual ensemble, in fact, it implies a point of view and a listening point; similarly, the visual montage is accompanied by a sound montage, often asynchronous with respect to i. (the sound can anticipate the next i, or prolong the previous one in it), or it differs in terms of the perception of spatiality (at the distance of the character framed by the camera, a similar 'sound distance' may not correspond). L' the. from a technical point of view, therefore, it must be considered as the result of four distinct but concomitant processes: two on-location processes, namely the visual and phonic shooting, and two of post-production, assembly and mixing (assembly and calibration of the column sound). In the spatio-temporal delimitation of the visible, which effects narrative, the i. it depends primarily on the angle that the director chooses to shoot a certain subject. In theory, there are infinite possible angles, which correspond to as many potential points of view, within which to choose to build a single i .: from above, from below, plumb, supine, horizontal, in axis, etc. with respect to the subject or portion of the field to be framed. The choice, however, is often addressed by well-defined representative needs, and is generally elaborated on the basis of the criteria of continuity of the action in the passage between. different, or fittings. Typologically, the i. they are distinguished on the basis of the process of perspective centering and relative focus of a specific subject or of a whole more complex than the frame of the visual framework. If the reference parameter is the size of the human figure present in the i., Depending on the relationship that exists between it and the background, a scale of the recovery planes can be given, ranging from the whole figure (a human body from the head to toe) on the very first floor (from the forehead to the chin of a face). On the other hand, if the parameter is that of the amplitude of the scenic space inside the I., a scale of the shooting fields is enumerated, ranging from the very long field (a large panorama) to the medium field (a space restricted to the human dimension). There. in this sense it is the result of a relationship between the shooting field and the plane of the human figure that appears in it, in relation to the frame of the image. That is, it expresses a double relationship, which reflects the chronological and two-dimensional synthesis function of the three spatial dimensions carried out by the image: the relationship between frame and figure (plane), and the relationship between figure and background (field), over the its duration. The delimitation of the vision with respect to a single subject occupying the whole picture can also be partial, and in this case the i. it will be the detail of a human or animal body, or a detail if referred to plants or objects. Being the i. perceived by the spectator as structurally partial with respect to an alleged '360 ° space' on which the 'overs(v.), an element that (thanks above all to sound) creates a particular narrative tension between vision as such and what is allusively excluded from it. The idea of off-field corresponds to the i. in the backfield, that is the visualization of what in the i. previous is perceived as present and external to the painting. Finally, there is an identification factor of the i. in the dramatic person: if the contents of the i. they have as their visual point of reference an anonymous and neutral witness that disappears in the multiplicity of points of view of the narrative instance, and the protagonist of the story appears indifferently within the painting, we speak of i. objective. Conversely, if the camera lens coincides with the point of view of a character not visible but in some way noticeable on the off-screen, we speak of i. subjective. There. subjective involves a double process of meaning: the univocalization of the point of view, which is connoted emotionally and psychically, and the personification of the off-screen. Being the i. circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one subjective involves a double process of meaning: the univocalization of the point of view, which is connoted emotionally and psychically, and the personification of the off-screen. Being the i. circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one subjective involves a double process of meaning: the univocalization of the point of view, which is connoted emotionally and psychically, and the personification of the off-screen. Being the i. circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form one circumscribed on the spatial side by the frame of the visual picture, and on the temporal side by the cuts or assembly cuts, it also functions as a minimum significant segment of the film 'discourse', which gives rise to coherent segments of greater duration and meaning: different i. that take place in the same space and at the same time form a scene, and several consequent scenes form onesequence (v.) of shots. Should to go from an i. stable to another, there are no assembly cuts, but machine movements (see) to be taken, such as cranes, trolleys or panoramas, which move the frame and point of view without detaching, changing the field of vision and the plane of the figure , the sequence plan is obtained(v.), which can be considered to all intents and purposes a sort of internal assembly within the frame. It should also be stressed that the i. it is determined by an arbitrary duration: the same gesture, resumed in its execution, can be more rarefied, slowed down or suspended, vice versa faster, accelerated or interrupted. On the level of signification, duration implies completely different effects: time is not an accessory to the space of vision, but determines its perception, directing it to the emotional level (slowness can express serenity, but also, in situations of tension, anguish, speed is generally associated with an imminent danger, but also with relief). There is therefore an internal rhythm of the i., Given by the relationship between the framed space and the flow of time used to frame it; the sound rhythm is superimposed on it, which is the result of the harmonic fusion between the column of noises, that of dialogue and music. All these elements are actively implicated in the current conception of a single i. film. In the definition of the i. there is a remarkable conceptual difference between the nomenclature in use in France and that widespread in the United States, the two countries that fought for the authorship of cinema at the time of its invention through the filming device patent: Thomas A.'s Kinetoscope. Edison and the Cinématographe of Louis and Auguste Lumière. French tradition distinguishes the process of making the i. as a framework (cadrage) through the measurement of the recovery plans (plan): the cadre, i. as a frame that cuts out the diegetic space, it sets out a series of plans, which correspond to the different perspective planes of the scene in which the human figure can be found. The measurement term, therefore, is that of the dimensions of the human figure in relation to the frame (the first floor, e.g., it is the gros plan, large plan, the very long field corresponds to the plan général, general plan). The Anglo-American tradition tends more markedly to identify the process of framing, indicating the distance of the framed object, through the so-called camera distances. The shot or take (literally 'shooting' or 'shooting'), a photographic term of hunting origin, relating to the aim with which to 'hit' the object, describes the relationship between the framed object and the objective of the machine from the operator's point of view rather than in relation to the frame (e.g. close-up, i.e. close-up, or long shot, i.e. long shot). The Anglo-American tradition tends more markedly to identify the process of framing, indicating the distance of the framed object, through the so-called camera distances. The shot or take (literally 'shooting' or 'shooting'), a photographic term of hunting origin, relating to the aim with which to 'hit' the object, describes the relationship between the framed object and the objective of the machine from the operator's point of view rather than in relation to the frame (e.g. close-up, i.e. close-up, or long shot, i.e. long shot). The Anglo-American tradition tends more markedly to identify the process of framing, indicating the distance of the framed object, through the so-called camera distances. The shot or take (literally 'shooting' or 'shooting'), a photographic term of hunting origin, relating to the aim with which to 'hit' the object, describes the relationship between the framed object and the objective of the machine from the operator's point of view rather than in relation to the frame (e.g. close-up, i.e. close-up, or long shot, i.e. long shot). The Italian term i. it merges the meanings of cadre as framework and plan, and is therefore more similar to shot English, in that it does not break down the two aspects, but often uses them as synonyms. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, in the first feature films, in the absence of a narrative montage, the concept of i. still equivalent to that of image tout court: the fixed plane in the total field, similarly to the scene of a filmed theater, had an assembly entirely internal to the I., that is, made up of the movements of the actors and their relationship with the off-field, used as stage backdrop for exposed entrances and exits. The i., At that time, was also not technically controllable during the construction phase by the operator: the lack of a viewfinder in the hand crank camera meant that the cameraman had to center it at the beginning, without checking the correctness during shooting. Historically understand the process of defining the concept of i. means to focus on the progressive inventions that have moved the use of the camera from a witness neutrality marked by a 'right distance' (bonne distance) from actors and scenarios, of theatrical derivation (conception to which great artists of the early cinema , first of all Georges Méliès, remained tied throughout their career), up to a use in narrative function, partly borrowed from the techniques of theatrical writing (e.g. the foreground as development of the part on the proscenium), but even more from painting, photography and more or less coeval folk art of comics, with which the different distances between human figure and objective, machine movements and angle have been elaborated in a dramatic sense. More generally, it can be said that the history of the solutions identified by the directors to solve the technical and expressive problems of the i. it went to settle down from time to time in a sort of film grammar, quickly spread thanks to the extremely competitive regime of the producers of the beginning, who immediately copied the new inventions of their rivals to market them in turn. Much of this grammar was developed empirically and without any systematization in the first decade of cinema, when facial expression and Before the consequential logic of assembly(v.) properly said to take hold, at the end of the nineteenth century, several i were already used. for a single subject film, but in general each of them, called tableau (painting, in a pictorial sense), coincided with a single scene that respected the units of space and time, and was therefore preceded by a special explanatory sign: therefore, there were no visible assembly units. The tableau did not contemplate the possibility of a backfield: direct successor of the theatrical representation, it presupposed beyond the camera an overall gaze on the part of the spectator, and treated the set as a stage box, a repeatable theater. Only when, with the first films shot outdoors, did a realistic instance borrowed from photography take over, namely the need for the i. were extrapolated from an infinite space, the viewer's gaze was no longer fixed and the diegetic space ideally extended 360 °. In this way the i. they varied away, becoming elementary parts of more complex scenes, whose point of view was no longer fixed but, as happened in the comics, it was formed by an unspecified sequence of points of view variable depending on where you wanted to direct the viewer's gaze . The closed space of cinema thus opened onto a reconstructed world, which in a certain sense also incorporated the public. The decisive step towards the modern conception of the i. as a sample of expressive distances between camera and framed subject, of uncertain authorship and difficult dating, it was accomplished by the anti-naturalistic and autonomous introduction of the first and very first floor, which involved a process of anthropomorphization of the i., basing it on the dramatic accentuation of facial mimicry. Born as a fairground attraction and genre in its own right, the first floor, a direct descendant of pictorial and photographic portraiture, was already present in protofilm such as the one in which Georges Deménÿ pronounced the phrase "je vous aime" to his chronophotographer in 1891, or in Fred Ott's sneeze by William KL Dickson, shot with a cinetoscope in 1894, while in The May Irwin-John C. Rice kiss by William Heise, the famous and scandalous reprise of a theatrical scene for Edison's Vitascope of 1896, the protagonists were cut in half figure in an i. very close partial. A few years later, in 1900, the Englishman George Albert Smith, a former portrait photographer, He specialized for Charles Urban's Warwick Trading Company in animated portraiture, with the Humorous facial expressions series: short films consisting of simple close-ups of faces with exaggerated caricature mimicry, intent on common gestures such as sniffing tobacco or drinking wine. Among the first filmmakers to use explicitly narrative a continuity of assembly between different scenes, borrowing it above all from the young popular art of comics, there were the British of the so-calledBrighton school(v.): if Smith himself made numerous films between 1900 and 1901 mixing close-ups (then called magnificient views), total fields and details, his colleague James Williamson alternated between total fields and close-ups, some already in function of counterfield, with a procedure that represents the idea of a narrative montage in embryo. Williamson was the author in 1901 of the satirical film A big swallow, where a detail of the protagonist's mouth swallowing a camera appears, and of Stop thief !, in which a single escape action is fragmented into multiple points of view mounted in sequence , as well as from Hallo, are you there ?, where he first experimented with the split screen technique, the screen divided into several parts to simultaneously show different spaces: in the latter film, two men calling each other, taken on an American plane, they appear side by side in the same image divided into two shots. The same year Smith made As seen through a telescope, where, using a circular matte, he showed what the protagonist's eye saw, making one of the first subject films in the history of cinema. Among the experimenters of the assembly detachment is the American Edwin S. Porter, who made two very significant narrative films for Edison's Vitascope: The life of an American fireman (1902) and The great train robbery (1903; The assault on the train). If in the former, not unlike what the Corsican Ferdinand Zecca experienced in France for Pathé Frères in 1901 with the film Histoire d'un crime, the passage between different scenes was ensured by a cross-fading done by hand, closing and reopening the objective, in the second there are exposed connections on different scenarios that follow the movements of the protagonists step by step in their escape, constituting real fragmented sequences, From the beginning the major national productions, the French, the American and the English, have been characterized in the setting of the i., Which has become a sort of recognizable trademark. The height of the camera, in the first French productions Pathé, was by convention unnaturally fixed at the height of the character's life, and although the diagonals of the scene were already used to create a greater perspective effect by moving the action on several levels, the limit of proximity to the camera was set at four meters for a 50mm lens. For US pioneers, from Edison's operators to directing David W. Griffith's first short filmsfor the Biograph, the i. for a long time it has been based on a criterion of frontality of faces and scenarios arranged at right angles to the optical axis, at the standard distance of a minimum of nine feet from the camera, and more or less fixed use of the whole figure . The use of the minimum distance involved in both cases a certain variation of the internal planes of the i., Linked to the movement of the actor, which varied from the whole figure to a half figure. In France, in the famous Assassinat du duc de Guise (1908) by André Calmettes and Charles Le Bargy, produced by the Film d'Art, the characters broke the perspective convention of the 'fourth wall' with their backs in some scenes to the camera. socket. In some American Vitagraph productions dating from around 1905-06, the point of view was raised until it corresponded to the operator's eyes: realistic and anti-theatrical view, which gradually gave rise to the need to diversify and bring closer the shots of the multiple 'planes' of the human figure to obtain greater dramatic accentuation of the scenes. The Vitagraph style can be traced back to the experimentation of the variation of the shooting angle of a single subject within the same scene, as well as a decisive step forward in the experimentation of the i. subjective (then called a point of view shot); while in the films of the Brighton school the subjective was made with devices such as the matte, to simulate the vision through a telescope, binoculars or a lens, the whole view of some i. of films, such as Back to nature (1910), is identified with the eyes of the main character. From the centrality of the human figure in the focus of the i. the panoramic and photographic approach of the Lumière brothers differed significantly, which had a significant influence on the productions of Film d'Art. Since the first short film shown in Paris in December 1895, L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, the way in which the operators of the vues (views) were able to use the diagonal internal movement in the sense of depth of field, is remarkable. performing a decentralization (décadrage) that shifted the focus of the action with respect to the front perspective, and dynamically exploited the empty spaces in relation to the edge of the picture, with the result of accentuating the aspect of internal chronological sequencing. The technique of décadrage developed in the first decade of the century especially in the mass scenes of spectacular cinema and is already evidently carried out in large productions with historical subjects such as the Italian Cabiria (1914) by Giovanni Pastrone and the masterpiece by Griffith Intolerance (1916 ), although it was perfected to its highest degree in the following decade by Soviet cinematography, as evidenced by the choral scenes of the pivotal work Bronenosec Potëmkin (1925; The battleship Potëmkin) by Sergej M. Ejzenštejn. In it the greatest effect of the décadrage consists in including in the visual picture a part that is virtually belonging to the off-field and extraneous to the active focus of the scene, in order to develop several independent levels of action and increase the sensation of reality in direct image taking. One last, decisive break in the identification between image and i. it is due to the introduction of machine movements with a specific narrative function. The overview, which the operator of the Lumière brothers, Eugène Promio, had experimented around 1897, was already used by Zecca in a scene of La vie et la passion de Jésus Christ, L'adoration des Mages shot in 1902, which shows the crowd of characters traveling to the Bethlehem hut not with the usual total field, but through the movement of the machine on the axis forward and backward. Among the first uses of the trolley in expressive function (G. Méliès used it already, but only to produce illusionistic effects), it includes that of a 1903 film produced by WKL Dickson's American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, Hooligan in jail, where the operator passed from the total field of the cell to a close-up of the prisoner gradually and seamlessly approaching. Subsequently, the shooting with the movement of the trolley became in the United States an attraction in its own right in the so-called Hale's tour, which, starting from 1905 and around 1912, the producers Adolphe Zukor, Sam Warner and Carl Laemmle set up in theaters. projections equipped with the scenography of the interior of a train, from whose window-screen it was possible to observe views of landscapes taken from the stonecutter of a locomotive. L' use of machine movements such as the crane or the dolly flourished throughout the course of the first decade of the twentieth century and among its major experimenters certainly had Griffith who, starting from 1908, with The adventures of Dollie, going around the Biograph at rhythm of two films a week, managed to overcome the limits of the narration of ingenious pioneers such as ES Porter who, in 1905, with The kleptomaniac, had introduced the theatrical technique of parallel editing into the cinema, destined for a large diffusion in the following years. Griffith inserted the i. in a global articulated narrative scheme that broke the time unit of the story, recovering rhetorical and psychological connotations of the literary text such as flashback or cut-back (the unveiling or reconstruction of something that happened before the current time of the story). Founding the nexus of i. on the internal evolutions of the characters rather than on the external events, the camera became in Griffith's cinema a dramatic element in itself, a real presence, the substitute for the narrating self: consequently, its concrete mirror, the physiognomy of the actor gradually took over the mimicry and action. There. it had now become part of a code of writing of space and time without limits or boundaries, the minimum element of a new narrativity, of a new expressive language. In the following decade the technical experimentation of the i. it lost its episodic character, and became the object of study and teaching, together with the theory of editing, in the first schools of cinematography, first of all that of the newly created Soviet Union. The experimental work carried out since 1919 by the director in his early twenties Lev V. Kulešov as a teacher at the GTK (Goskino Technikum) in Moscow represents in this sense one of the most advanced tips in the development of the language of cinema. His reflection was taken up and deepened in the following decades by Ejzenštejn, which deserves credit for having introduced a form of i into the cinema, with didactic and propaganda intent unrealistic and eccentric, belonging to a logic different from the dramatic one: the i. metaphorical or intellectual, abstract visualization from the narrative context of a judgment in the form of comparison between characters and situations and their term of comparison with popular metaphors. Among these, one of the most famous remains that of the head of the duma AF Kerenskij in Oktjabr ′ (1927; October), whose emphatic rise to the stairs of the building is interspersed with i. of a mechanical peacock and a plaster statuette of Napoleon. The use of the i. it was experimented symbolically among others by the Danish Carl Theodor Dreyer, which in the film La passion de Jeanne d'Arc (1927; The passion of Joan of Arc), during the scenes of the trial, through an obsessive alternation between the. from the top of the prisoner to show his checkmate position, and from the bottom of his judges to underline his position of dominion, he managed to render all the drama of the victim-executioner relationship with the simple variation of the shooting angle. In the same years, in Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm Murnauon the more visionary side, according to an aesthetic similar to that of the expressionist movement, he used the i. subjective as a projection of moods on reality. In the film Der letzte Mann (1924; The last laugh), the famous 'drunk machine', the floating and disjointed point of view with which scenarios and objects were framed, managed to express in an unprecedented way the state of alteration and intoxication of the desperate protagonist. The French filmmakers of the first avant-garde, defined by some critics as impressionist (see impressionism), to concretize in image the flows of thought, the fantasies and the moods of the protagonists, were among the first to give an artistic impulse to the possibility of deformation of the i. through techniques already in use for some time such as slow motion, overlays and anomalous points of view. To witness it were films of great visual impact such as La souriante madame Beudet (1923) directed by Germaine Dulac, L'affiche (1926) and La chute de la maison Usher (1928) by Jean Epstein, or Feu Mathias Pascal (1925; Il fu Mattia Pascal) by Marcel L'Herbier. Among the most important experiments of that national wave, one should mention that carried out in Napoléon (1927; Napoleon) by Abel Gance, which, realizing the subjective of an inanimate object in movement, the snowball thrown as a game by Napoleon as a child, paved the way for the use of the so-called i. imaginary, that is, impossible to be experienced by the human observer to whom the narrative instance refers, a spectacular and aesthetic stratagem that will be widely distributed in the following decades, with i. such as bird's eye view, low shot etc. In 1941, with his debut film Citizen Kane (Fourth power), the American Orson Welleshe recovered a widely used technique already in the 1910s and through special wide-focal lenses he managed to exploit the depth of field by simultaneously focusing multiple planes of the i., therefore in fact, to create an i. where multiple action gives rise to multiple simultaneous narratives. This can be clearly seen in the scene of the entrusting of the little protagonist Charles Foster Kane from his parents to a guardian, in which the images of the adult characters who speak on an advanced level are counterpointed by those of the child playing unaware against the background of the i., beyond the frame of a window, dramatically affecting the sense of dialogue. A separate discussion requires the specificity of the use of i. in oriental cinema, characterized by an essential and geometric composition, especially the Japanese one. In several Ozu Yasujirō films, for example, the camera is placed at a minimum distance from the ground, the so-called tatami height, the ceremonial or combat carpet, so that you can shoot the characters, in the director's films often sitting around a table or on the ground, in axis with respect to their point of view or framing the counterfields and making machine movements from their own perspective, according to a stylistic and expressive unity. From the beginning the spatial and temporal limit of the i. Classical represented an open challenge for many filmmakers. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Raoul Grimoin-Sanson invented the cinéorama, a complex multiple filming apparatus, consisting of ten cameras arranged in a radial pattern on an air balloon. The result of the experiment was presented at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900, in a special 360 ° projection space, where ten projectors spread the images on a huge circular wall that served as a screen. In the aforementioned Napoléon, a quarter of a century later, taking the idea of décadrage to the extreme, Gance had conceived the film for a 180 ° multiscreen projection, capable of enveloping and shocking the audience during the mass scenes of the battles. In 1936, in the United States, the Warner Bros. production company presented the first three-dimensional or stereoscopic cinema experiments, which were based on the use of glasses with colored lenses (for the left green eye, for the red right), with which viewers could recompose images projected slightly split on the screen. In an attempt to overcome the two-dimensional crushing of the i., Various 3D cinema systems would have followed one another in a rather unsatisfactory way after the Second World War. On the opposite side, that of spectacular emptying, the most radical auteur cinema of the fifties and sixties, especially that of the various national 'new waves', he has dealt with the filmic space often using very long sequence plans that questioned the concept of narrative segmentation proper to i. as a definitive framework. Radical and ascetic authors, such as Ozu, Robert Bresson andMichelangelo Antonioni, hanno adottato in funzione drammatica i. improprie, prima fra tutte il campo vuoto, ovvero la scena priva della presenza di piani con figure umane. Il cinema sperimentale del dopoguerra, invece, ha teso soprattutto a forzare i limiti cronologici dell'inquadratura. Tra gli esperimenti più estremi del cinema underground statunitense, volti ad attentare alla presunta necessaria spettacolarità del mezzo cinematografico, vanno ricordate almeno le provocazioni percettive dell'artista newyorkese di origine ceca Andy Warhol: Empire (1964), costituito da un'unica i. fissa di otto ore di durata del grattacielo dell'Empire State Building e dei contemporanei micro-eventi atmosferici, che ha restituito l'i. alla sua natura fotografica primigenia, e The Chelsea girls (1967), che riprende la tecnica dello split screen estendendola all'intera durata del film, con il risultato di creare un doppio film in due quadri paralleli, a volte tra loro intercomunicanti, da proiettare contemporaneamente su un unico schermo. In questo senso, uno degli esperimenti più riusciti è senz'altro quello di Michael Snow, canadese trapiantato a New York, che in Wavelength (1967) ha esasperato l'importanza del movimento come unica fonte di percezione del tempo nell'immagine. Il film consiste di un solo, lentissimo zoom che, partendo da un campo totale, per quarantacinque minuti attraversa lo spazio di una grande stanza, avvicinando progressivamente una fotografia che mostra un dettaglio di onde marine, ed è appesa a una parete, tra due grandi finestre, oltre le quali si vede scorrere la vita quotidiana della strada cittadina.In conclusione, la tecnologia digitale (v. digital, cinema ), introduced in the cinema from the eighties of the 20th century, in theory made possible the integral modification in postproduction of the i., allowing the manipulation of all the visual and sound parameters of the recorded image. Nevertheless, even when fully reconstructed or digitally manipulated, the i. cinematographic did not change in substance the main setting of the 'setting in the picture', its linguistic function of minimal narrative and expressive unity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY G. Sadoul, Histoire générale du cinéma: 1st vol., L'invention du cinéma, 1832-1897 , édition revue et augmentée, Paris 1948, 2nd vol., Les pionniers du cinéma (de Méliès à Pathé), 1897- 1909 , Paris 1947, 3rd vol., 1-2, Le cinéma devient un art, 1909-1920 , Paris 1951-1952 (trad. It. General history of cinema, 1st vol., 1832-1909, The origins and pioneers, Turin 1965, and 2nd vol., Cinema becomes an art, 1909-1920 , Turin 1967). B. Balázs, Der Film. Weden und Wesen einer neuen Kunst , Wien 1949 (trad. It. Turin 1956, 1987²). J. Leyda, Kino: a history of the Russian and Soviet film , London 1960 (trad. It. Milano 1964). G. Deleuze, Cinéma 1. The image-mouvement , Paris 1983 (trad. It. Milan 1984). J. Aumont, A. Bergala, M. Mairie, et al., Esthétique du film , Paris 1984 (trad. It. Turin 1995). Vitagraph Co. of America , edited by P. Cherchi Usai, Pordenone 1987. A. Tarkovskij, Sculpting time , Milan 1988. N. Burch, Life to those shadows , London 1990 (trad. It. Parma 1994).
L. Kulešov, L'art du cinéma et autres écrits , Lausanne 1994.
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[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 20:40 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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Hercule Poirot Literary character protagonist of a series of detective novels by the English writer A. Christie (1891-1976). Since the first novel The mysterious affair at Styles (1920), the figure of the Belgian investigator is shown in his outstanding characteristics: intelligence and psychological acumen.
Among the cinematographic transpositions we remember the series of films in which Poirot was played by P. Ustinov (1921-2004).
[ بازدید : 81 ]
[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 20:36 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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Frame The f. cinematographic (frame), taken independently from the concatenation of images that make up the film, does not differ from a simple photograph and can be considered as the minimum unit of the cinematographic frame. And it is precisely at this first level of analog reproduction that cinema highlights its links with photographic technique. Every single f. it contains a portion of the image, a fragment of action that only in the projection phase will it be recomposed as a unicum thus originating the illusion of movement and composing itself in a frame . In most cases f. they are separated from each other by a horizontal line (frame line). Line spacing does not exist in 16 mm film and in Cinemascope format (see). On the sides, however, the f. it is delimited by perforations, the number of which varies according to the film format (one perforation in 16 mm, four in 35 mm, five in 65 mm and 70 mm). The speed of execution of an action and the overall duration of a film are given first of all by the scrolling speed (cadence) of the f. for each second (f./s) in the projection phase. From the cinema of the origins to the appearance of the sound, this scanning speed was variable (in most cases 16 or 18 f./s); with the advent of sound it has increased to 24 f. per second. If a film is telecinemed (ie transferred on electronic medium) for the television broadcast, the cadence must finally be 25 f. per second. In the case of accelerated or slow-moving sequences already in the shooting phase, the number of f. / s in shooting can decrease or increase. There are sophisticated cameras that can expand the recording speed up to thousands of f./s (think, for example, of the car accident sequence in Quattro feste di grigio velvet, 1971, by Dario Argento, or images for the video installation of Bill Viola The greetings, 1995). Each single shot corresponds to a series of photogrammatic units whose number varies with respect to the impressed film footage corresponding to the length of the shooting. Each f. it therefore contains within its borders all that the director has decided to cut out of the part of reality that he has before him, the so-called condom . Everything else consequently becomes off-screenand can be documented from a still photograph. But this highlights the difference between cinematographic reproduction on one side and photographic reproduction of a shot on the other. A photograph taken on the set may in fact simulate a shot, but it can never correspond exactly to the point of view of the camera. Only an image printed from f. a film can guarantee that it is the exact reproduction of a shot. The f. in short, it is the documentation of a precise point of view, of a choice made by the director, with respect to the multiplicity of the glances implemented in the film. There are cases where a series of photogrammatic units contains multiple shots, for example when reproducing the cross fade (see fade), or the simultaneous and fluid moment of passage from one frame to another. Always within the same series of f. two or more clearly separated frames can also coexist (split screen), recorded at different times and places. it can vary in size, according to values determined by the basic ratio for height. The classic size corresponds to 3/4 (1: 1.33). Subsequently other formats were imposed such as 1: 1.66, 1: 1.75 and 1: 1.85 (commonly called panoramic), 1: 1.88 (Vistavision), 1 : 2.35 and 1: 2.55 (Cinemascope) and others. In the case of Cinemascope, a format that provides for the compression of the image in f. and which gives rise to an elongation of the figures, an anamorphic lens that corrects the image is applied during the projection phase, so that the elements inscribed in f. regain their natural form. In the past, a particular film format such as the aforementioned Vistavision (soon replaced by the 65mm) was based on the horizontal reproduction of the frames. It was double f. 8 perforations that had a higher yield than the Cinemascope thanks to the double exposure surface. The double f. it was once used on formats such as 8 mm (in practice a 16 mm) and 16 mm (or a 32 mm). Once developed, the film was cut into two parts and then spliced. This procedure - adopted to reduce the size of the equipment and the processing times - in certain cases has stimulated aesthetic choices. Some experimental filmmakers built their films on f. doubled: an example is Ciao-ciao (1967) by Adamo Vergine, in which 4 f are seen simultaneously in the frame. (2 for the left shot and 2 for the right shot). During the projection, the various formats described correspond to as many types of matting able to hide everything that is extraneous to the representation (the space beyond the edges of the f, the sound band etc.) further framing the edges of the frame. So there is a gap between the image actually printed on the surface of the film and the actually projected image. Very often, when the projectionist makes a mistake, the microphones used on the set for direct recording appear on the field. The f. therefore it may contain within it an element that reveals the nature of cinema as artifice. We are faced with a real paradox of the f .: a portion of the out of scope included in the image, There are some cinematographic areas in which f. acquires a particularly significant role. For example, animated cinemawho has always worked on single f., adopting the technique of step one (single frame or stop motion shot): depending on the speed you want to give to the movement, each drawing is taken for the duration of a certain number of frames. The field where you work directly on the needle. it is, however, that of cinema made 'without a camera', or hand-painted on film. The author is forced to measure himself with the narrow space of the frame, using a magnifying glass. This is possible mainly in the case of 35 mm film, whose f. they have an amplitude greater than 8 mm and 16 mm. In the example of abstract cinema, however, f. it can be conceptually neutralized, if the scan line is not respected. The painting on film thus becomes a continuous flow not circumscribed by the rigid cage of the single frame. Some examples are the films of the Canadian Norman McLaren (Begone dull care, 1949) or the American Stan Brakhage (Mothlight, 1963, made with flowers and moth wings pressed between two layers of transparent film inserted in the optical printer). Brakhage among other things said that his films could be seen at both 16 and 24 f. per second. Regardless of the figurative or abstract nature of an image, it is possible to create an iconographic flow that severely tests the observer's perception; respecting the frame of f. it is sufficient to inscribe a different image in each frame. This technique was adopted by Robert Breer, the leading exponent of experimental animation, in films such as Recreation (1956-57) or 66 (1966). As part of the work on the individual f. in a certain sense cinema approaches painting, as each f. represents a unicum (even more than an animated drawing sequence that constitutes a variation on the theme), and at the same time constitutes a return to photography, as each frame is a snapshot in its own right so that the movement is given exclusively by the rapid succession of the images. Work on the individual f. - regardless of the use of techniques based on the staged shot - it is also the connecting ground between animated cinema and a certain experimental cinema (see), generally called structural. These are films, according to the definition of P. Adam Sitney (Structural film, in "Film culture", 1969, 47, pp. 1-10), based on some characteristics such as the immobility of the camera, the effect stroboscopic (i.e. the decomposition of the movement of a subject in its various phases, often invisible to the naked eye, obtained by repeatedly illuminating it with special flashers), the exact and consecutive repetition of the same shot, the re-recording of images projected on the screen. In general, this type of cinema explores the infinite possibilities of film as a support and as a basic structural element. Many works are even conceived around precise mathematical rules. Also for this reason the exact number of f. it is extremely important to make sense of the experiments. The abstract films of the Italian artist Luigi Veronesi, made between the late 1930s and 1950s (mostly scattered), were precisely based on the Fibonacci series, applied to the number of f. which make up the different shots, and in which each term, fixed the first two, is the sum of the two that precede it (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 ...). Also for this reason the exact number of f. it is extremely important to make sense of the experiments. The abstract films of the Italian artist Luigi Veronesi, made between the late 1930s and 1950s (mostly scattered), were precisely based on the Fibonacci series, applied to the number of f. which make up the different shots, and in which each term, fixed the first two, is the sum of the two that precede it (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 ...). Also for this reason the exact number of f. it is extremely important to make sense of the experiments. The abstract films of the Italian artist Luigi Veronesi, made between the late 1930s and 1950s (mostly scattered), were precisely based on the Fibonacci series, applied to the number of f. which make up the different shots, and in which each term, fixed the first two, is the sum of the two that precede it (0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 ...). It is clear that the loss of even a single f. in a copy obtained from the original it compromises the correct vision of the work. Thus a film like Serene velocity (1970) by the American Ernie Gehr is built on an exact calculation of f. and mounted directly in the car, i.e. in the recovery phase planned in this sense. The lens frames the corridor of a modern building, geometrically aseptic, from a point of view placed at a median distance, then continuously zooms in and out by shooting 4 f. at a time. At the end of the film the viewer - now completely dazed by this obsessive and hypnotic alternation of near / far - will see the two opposing views overlapping due to the persistence of the image on the retina, the total of the corridor and the close-up of the background. The Austrian Peter Kubelka is another of those filmmakers who attributed great value to both the materiality of the film and its structural harmony. Adebar (1956-57, composed of 1664 f.) Or Schwechater (1958, containing 1440 f.) Are the result of an in-depth study on the values of rhythm, duration, composition in relation to each single f., Even if they start, first of all , from the need to rethink the concept of movement. The Viennese filmmaker questions precisely the idea that cinema is made up of moving images. For him, "the frame, while being projected, does not move" (Masi 1995, p. 17). We could say that Kubelka focuses on f. and conceives neither the shot nor the sequence (which already belong to cinematographic dramaturgy). The fact that in almost half a century Kubelka has made just over 50 minutes of cinema makes it clear how much importance he attaches to a simple frame as a basic element of film language and totalizing compared to the entire cinematographic aesthetic. Another famous film by Kubelka, Arnulf Rainer (1958-1960, formed by 9216 f.) Represents an even more extreme stage in the investigation of this minimal unit. It is a work based solely on f. alternating whites and blacks. It can be joined by Tony Conrad's The flicker (1966), also composed of a series of black and white frames, positioned however at a much greater distance and with different perceptual effects. In the same year the American Paul Sharits realized Ray gun virus, another experiment based on f. monochromes of different colors. This and other Sharits films, under the abbreviation 'Frozen film frame', have on several occasions been displayed in the form of film strips on the wall. The same fate has fallen on the films of Conrad and Kubelka. The static and spatial fruition of these 'film-objects', instead of their dynamic and temporal vision on the screen, in addition to highlighting the rigidly mathematical structure of the films, attributes to f. a completely new relief that goes beyond simple support. The f. monochromatic was then adopted in two cases outside the strictly experimental cinema: Blue (1993), the last feature by the English director Derek Jarman (a brave narrative film without images, where the uniform blue of the screen is filled only with dialogues, sounds and music) and Branca de neve (2000) by the Portuguese João César Monteiro, composed largely of f. blacks, interrupted from time to time by shots of the sky, on which a text by Robert Walser is recited. Such an operation had already been attempted in 1930 by Walter Ruttmann with Weekend, defined at the time as a radio film. Using f. transparencies that in projection translated into the pure space of the luminous screen, the German filmmaker was able to narrate a Sunday trip only through sound effects. The fact that each instant of a film is reducible to an f, or to a fragment isolated from the context, is in some cases evident thanks to the still image. The English counterpart, freeze-frame, has however acquired a wider connotation in recent decades (and always in relation to an experimental use of the image). We are not faced with a simple block of f., But with a technique that proceeds with f. frozen, capable of showing only a few steps of an action. This type of freezing operated on the reproduction of a real movement has the purpose of making the sequence unreal, of marking its timeless dimension, or of detailing the various phases of an event in detail. The more classic still image is usually used at the end of the film as, for example, in the Not unlike is the inclusion of a real photograph within a film sequence. Here too it is a question of stopping a flow of moving images. What Rosalind Krauss would call the photographic (Le photographique, 1990; trad. It. 1996) is given in this case by the marking of the photogrammatic status of cinema, by the return to a zero degree of film writing, therefore by a linguistic and historical reset ( pre-kinetic phase). However, there are works composed exclusively of snapshots that necessarily reproduce the combination of photography / frame. La jetée (1962) by Chris Marker is the best known example of a film made with many photos. The singularity of the French filmmaker's medium-length film lies in the fact that it is a narrative work, unlike documentaries on the type of Processions in Sicily (1964) by Michele Gandin, based on the photographs of Ferdinando Scianna, or experimental films such as Anonimatografo (1972) by Paolo Gioli, in which vintage photographs are 'animated'. All these procedures are obtained through truka, re-photography techniques, optical and printing devices, etc., and impose a further reflection on cinema intended as the art of photogramming (see alsophotography ). The metariflexing component of cinema in many circumstances is highlighted precisely through the unveiling of the frame structure. Wolf's gag, which emerges from the frame overflowing beyond the perforation of the film in Dumb-hounded (1943) by the famous American cartoonist Tex Avery, represents a splendid break in the scenic illusion. In Onboro firumu (1985, Film badly in tool) by the Japanese designer Tezuka Osamu, the good cowboy and the bad bandit chase each other climbing the spacing that separates an f. on the other. In the 7 days music video (2000) directed by Max and Dania, the singer Craig David, by pressing a simple button, interrupts the action, exits the film, rewinds the film, then returns to the scene and can remedy a gaffe that it would have been fatal. Different is the case of Morgan Fisher's Standard gauge (1984), entirely dedicated to the analysis of the different types of film. In addition to f. of films, scraps, codes, starts flow on the optical bench, commented by the voice over of the filmmaker, who reconstructs his personal idea of the relationship between research cinema and consumer cinema. With the passage first to electronics and then to digital, it no longer makes sense to speak of f., But one should only think in terms of framing. The frame gives way to still. The f. understood in a literal sense, as a visible trace on the support, it is now destined to disappear, being irreparably linked to the analog phase, to the relationship of printing on film. Only its virtual, numerical trace will remain, captured through software and infinitely editable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY PA Sitney , The avant-garde of American cinema , in New American Cinema. American independent cinema of the 1960s , edited by A. Aprà, Milan 1986, pp. 77-114. R. Tritapepe , The words of cinema , Rome 1991, pp. 100-102. S. Masi, Peter Kubelka , Naples 1995. B. Di Marino, Space machines , in "Segncinema", 1997, 88, pp. 2-5.
JL Burford, Robert Breer, Paris 1999.
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[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 20:34 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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ilmology Orientation of the film studios which anticipated the semiology of cinema of the sixties and seventies in various aspects and originated with the foundation in 1946 of the Association pour la recherche filmologique and the following year, at the Parisian university of the Sorbonne, of the Institut de filmologie, both by the work of Professor Gilbert Cohen-Séat, who intended in this way to involve specialists from other fields of the so-called human sciences in the study of films and cinema, primarily psychology, sociology, psychophysiology, psychoanalysis, aesthetics. In the context of the activities of the new institute, Cohen-Séat made use of the collaboration of both historians and film critics (occasionally, however) such as Georges Sadoul, Jean-Marie Lo Duca, Siegfried Kracauer, Léon Moussinac, Amédée Ayfre, André Bazin, both of art historians such as Pierre Francastel (also occasionally), both of aestheticians such as Étienne Souriau, and (above all) of child psychologists such as Henri Wallon (founder in 1946 of the Comité français du cinéma pour la jeunesse) and spouses Bianka and René Zazzo, from perception psychologists such as Albert Michotte van der Berck, by sociologists such as Edgar Morin, by psychoanalysts or psychoanalysis scholars such as Cesare Musatti, Didier Anzieu, Jean Deprun, Serge Lebovici, by semiologists like Roland Barthes (two interventions in the early 1960s). The results of the filmological research were mostly published in the "Revue internationale de filmologie" (39 issues, published between 1947 and 1961), directed by Cohen-Séat himself, whose first issue was released in July-August 1947. Interdisciplinarity and experimentalism in the humanistic program of Gilbert Cohen-Séat The institute and the magazine proposed an interdisciplinary approach that took into account, as a fundamental working hypothesis, the social functioning of cinema and the presence of the deciphering spectator as a constitutive element of the cinematographic phenomenon. Hypothesis that over the years will specialize in the psychophysiological direction, reducing the interdisciplinarity of the early days, but which at the beginning constituted the first real systematic attempt to study cinema by the work of scholars who did not belong to film criticism and were not involved at any level in film production. All this in accordance with the principle, affirmed by Cohen-Séat (against the aesthetics of the historical avant-garde), of a clear distinction between filmological thought and realization practice. Distinction, as well as intellectually precise, also strategically advantageous, because it is capable of allowing involvement in the cinematographic discourse of that part of the academic world that remained far from it. The prejudice of 'insiders' was in fact the greatest obstacle to a cultural operation which, in the intentions and declarations of its proponent, had the value of a real humanistic social mission, addressed to a world morally devastated by war. The foundations of the new method were laid by Cohen-Séat in his Essai sur les principes d'une philosophie du cinéma, 1. Introduction générale. Notions fondamentales et vocabulaire de filmologie (1946, 1958²), in which "filmology" was defined as " On the basis of these premises - which involved important issues which were also taken up again by the semiology of cinema, such as the distinction between phenomenon and interpretative code, the formal nature of the code, its specificity sought in what L. Hjelmslev called "matter of expression ", the relationships between logical-verbal formalization and filmic phenomenon - the Institut de filmologie traced at the beginning of its history an epistemological research program based on a series of points and moments: experimental research, aimed at discovering the tools , the processes, the laboratories that were able to allow a valid specifically filmological study; evolution of cinematographic empiricism, to constitute a documentation that would allow to trace in an "intelligible" way the history of cinema techniques, productively revealing the implicit intentions and interpreting the different conceptions and practices that had followed or joined over the course of the history of cinema, creating the conditions for subsequently updating both this documentation and its interpretation; aesthetics, psychology and general philosophy, sociology, to face the problems of cinema and their relationships with a general study on human psychism; comparative studies, which operated a productive comparison between the cinematographic language and other languages, investigating the great collective phenomena highlighted by cinema, such as, for example, mythology and iconography, in comparison with the analogous phenomena present in history of letters and the arts; regulatory research of application, Among the first activities of the f. the first international congress of filmology, which was held in Paris in September 1947, and the foundation, alongside the university of the Sorbonne (and the related Center français des recherches filmologiques), of a Bureau international de filmologie. Later, in February 1955, always in Paris, a second edition of the Congress was held, attended by numerous scholars of various nationalities. The international vocation of these studies and their declared pedagogical function, to which the Catholic world of those years, very sensitive to the problems of mass communication, could not remain indifferent, will determine a turning point in the early sixties, when, on the occasion of the Conference International in Milan on the subject of visual information, Aesthetic and sociological contributions Among the aesthetic contributions made from the beginning to f. the most important were those of É. Souriau, professor at the Sorbonne, who in the first issue of the "Revue" intervened with an essay entitled Nature et limit des contributions positives de l'esthétique à la filmologie. Others are due to the philosopher and beautician of spiritualistic training and personalistic orientation, who in 1947 published La correspondance des arts, and who, together with Raymond Bayer and Charles Lalo, gave birth to the "Revue d'esthétique" the following year foundational interventions in the filmological debate, such as the essay La structure de univers univers filmique et vocabulaire de filmologie (published on issue 7-8, 1951, of the "Revue internationale de filmologie"), the essay Filmologie et esthétique comparée (published in issue 10, 1952) and the care of a multi-handed volume, L'univers filmique (1953), which collects the results of a series of study meetings held at the Institut de filmologies - among the researchers involved, the same Souriau, Henri Agel, Jean Germain, Henri Lemaître, Jean-Jacques Rinieri - on specific topics, such as for example. the impression of reality in the cinema, the spectator's activity and passivity, the time of the film, the functions of the costumes and the sets, the music and the sound, the problems of the film on art. The methodology used is indicated by Souriau himself in the introduction to the book: meetings and discussions on the topics dealt with from time to time, with presentation of each topic by a speaker and projection of pieces of film as examples and as study materials. In closing the book, the result of a small but significant field investigation: the screening of the film by Jean Grémillon Le ciel est à vous (1944) to an audience of fourteen students of f., And the collection of their opinions in relation to a single theme, that of the rhythm of the film and its parts. The interventions of scholars such as Agel, who collaborated with "Revue" in the first two years with essays on the relationship between cinema and literature, or as the historian of the art P. Francastel, to whom Space and illusion (nr. 5, 1949), Études comparées (nr. 20-24, 1955), and an intervention at the Techniques nouvelles du cinéma symposium, which was also attended by Sadoul, Abel Gance, Moussinac, Bazin (all speeches were published in n. 20-24). Of more general philosophical and historical-sociological character were the contributions of two Italian scholars: Enrico Castelli-Gattinara, director of the Institute of Philosophical Studies of the University of Studies of Rome, author of the essay Philosophie et cinéma (nr. 3-4, 1948), and Luigi Volpicelli, author of La filmologie en tant que recherche socio-historique (nr. 25, 1955). it is clear, also from the smallness of this type of intervention, that the line of f. he tended towards applied studies, also as regards the human sciences (on the latter in general, see the intervention of R. Bayer, professor at the Sorbonne, entitled Le cinéma et les études humaines and published in issue 1 of the "Revue "). And in fact the sociological contributions, and even more the psychological and psychophysiological ones, which would have gained the upper hand after the first years, were much more important in the magazine. Among the sociological contributions, we must remember above all those of Georges Friedmann and E. Morin, who published on nr. 10, April-June 1952 of the "Revue" the essay Sociologie du cinéma, in which some basic hypotheses of the sociological approach to cinema were explained, in particular the interest in cinema as a cultural institution, the dialectic of art and industry, the role of ideology and the ability, proper to cinema, to reflect the values spread in a given society: "Every film, even the most surreal, is in a certain sense a documentary, a social document. [... 20-24 (issue of the magazine which also hosts two significant sections due to the strong pedagogical component of the f., Dedicated to the international conference Problème de l'utilisation du film pour la formation et l'Information and to the Débats en 1955 on the influence of cinéma et sur les problèmes du film et de la jeunesse). Writings, those of Morin in the magazine, which precede a few years the three books that would have given him fame among film scholars and which will be affected by the filmological approach (the first two having also had an anticipation in two interventions by the author on the "Revue", respectively in numbers 20-24 and 25 of 1955): Le cinéma, ou l'homme imaginaire (1956), Les stars (1957) and Esprit du temps (1962, released in Italy with the significant title L cultural industry).Cinéma vérité . Next to Friedmann and Morin's interventions, Filmologie et sociologie (nr. 2, 1947), signed by D. Anzieu, future psychoanalyst, and a consistent series of studies, especially dedicated to the public, to the educational value of cinema and to the methods relationship between children and adolescents with the plurality of meaning offered by the images, such as: Réflexions sur la valeur éducative du cinéma (nr. 2), signed by Dr. Juliette Favez Boutonnier, director of the Psycho-pedagogical Center; Cinéma, science et enseignement (nr. 5, 1949), signed by Jean Painlevé, director of the Institute of scientific cinematography; Le film, procédé d'analyse projective (nr. 6, 1950), signed by Agostino Gemelli, the president of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences to which the Research Institute on Communication in Milan in which the aforementioned magazine "Ikon" will be published from the beginning of the 1960s; Le cinéma et les images collectives (nr. 6), by M. Ponzo; Les adolescents et le cinéma (nr. 6), by the British W.-D. Wall and E.-M. Smith; Film d'enseignement et filmologie (nr. 7-8, 1951), by M.-C. Lebrun, director of the Pedagogical Museum of Paris. Psychology and psychophysiology Even more than the sociological approach, however, it is the psychological one that attracted the most interest from the f. between cinema and theater, painting, anthropology) tended increasingly to specialize their research in the direction of experimental psychology, with particular reference to the themes related to the spectator, located within the younger audience, in childhood and prepubertal. Medicine and almost always psychophysiology also contributed to these researches. Among the exponents of this particular approach are names of prominent scholars in the field of French psychology and child psychiatry. First of all those of H. Wallon, of his pupil R. Zazzo and of his wife, B. Zazzo. Wallon's interventions on the "Revue" follow the process of an experimental deepening of the perception of the film by the child. The most interesting element consisted in the fact that the main aspects of cinematographic language were taken into consideration and that a connection was established between those elements and the evolution of child psychology, with the consequence that those experiments were useful not only for the cinematographic field but also to studies on infantile psychic functioning. So, for example, the " consisting of the movement and succession of images. This interest in the pure succession of images by the child, which Wallon's experiments highlight, shows on the one hand how movement is what arouses spectator curiosity in that age group, allowing the child to overcome the difficulties of organization and recognition of the screen space, too narrow, and the time of the story, too constructed (which was a datum that could be useful, in the pedagogical perspective of the f., to those who produced and made films for children); but on the other it also has consequences for the perception of films by adult viewers, because it illuminates the functioning of the spectator memory (another central theme in these studies: see, for example, Sur la mémoire des films, signed by P. Fraisse and G. de Montmollin on nr. 9, 1952; and Remémoriation du matériel filmique - Étude expérimentale, signed by DJ Bruce in no. 12, 1953), which allows the adult to find again in the cinema a form of sensitivity that belonged to him as a child and that he lost growing up. To these and other investigations of similar tenor work the essays that H. Wallon wrote on the "Revue", largely as a result of experiments in which a considerable space is reserved for physiology, and which therefore motivate the use of the electroencephalogram practiced by other psychologists-filmologists, as is highlighted in particular in no. 16 of the magazine (1954), dedicated to the Études experimentales de l'activité nerveuse pendant la projection du film, which collects texts such as Modification de l'EEG pendant la projection cinématographique, signed-by Cohen-Séat, H. Gastaut and J. Bert, Retentissement du "fait filmique" sur les rythmes bioélectriques du cerveau, by Cohen-Séat and J. Faure, Note sur l'électroencéphalographie pendant la projection cinématographique chez des adolescents inadaptés, by G. Heuyer, Cohen-Séat, S. Lebovici, M.me Rebeillard, M.lle Daveau. Wallon's publications on the "Revue" include: De quelques problèmes psycho-physiologiques que pose le cinéma (nr. 1), L'enfant et le film (nr. 5, 1949), Introduction au symposium de filmologie (XIII Congrès international de Psychologie, Stockholm, juillet 1951) (nr. 9, 1952), L'acte percetif et le cinéma (nr. 13, 1953; article in which Wallon distinguishes, in the complex of spectatorial impressions, two specific series: the " Also in these studies the discussion returns on the exit from the infantile phase of subjective syncretism and on the achievement of the ability to decentralize one's point of view, relating it to the outside, in relation to the understanding of the continuous change of point of view that cinema offers through the articulation of one's complex language, the use of the field / counterfield and the dynamics of movement that are proper to it. In their research R. and B. Zazzo examined a high number of children, some of them with psychological disorders, arriving at important conclusions and reaffirming the centrality of the movement as a facilitating factor in understanding the film: "the dynamism of the film induces dynamism of the story [by children of four and a half years of age] in a age in which the child is still at the stage of enumeration or static description when it comes to images or even lived scenes; while the understanding of the condensation of time ellipses was probably very late "(Une expérience sur la compréhension du film, nr. 6, 1950). The interventions of B. Zazzo went as far as schools (Le cinéma à l'école maternelle, nr. 9, 1952), with the involvement of the teachers, as further proof of the diffusion among the filmologists of the pedagogical attitude advocated by Cohen-Séat. Among the interventions on psychological issues that appeared in the magazine, a small group is dedicated to the theme of cinema and psychoanalysis: by J. Deprun are Le cinéma et l'identification (nr. 1) and Cinéma et transfert (nr. 2, 1947); three writings are due to S. Lebovici, hospital doctor: Psychanalyse et cinéma (nr. 5, 1949), Sur quelques réactions d'enfants inadaptés (nr. 9, 1952, written together with G. Heuyer and L. Bertagna, trio which also owes the subsequent Une expérience d'étude de groupe The processus de l'identification et l'importance de la suggestibilité dans la situation cinématographique, published in nr. 13, 1953), and Cinéma et criminalité (nr. 14-15, 1953); by G.-C. Zapparoli, F.-G. Finally, Ferradini and M. Arrigoni are the Observations sur un phénomène d'enrichissement testimonial chez des sujets psychotiques (nr. 38, 1961), while the future psychoanalyst D. Anzieu, in addition to the already mentioned Filmologie et biologie (nr. 1), signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. written together with G. Heuyer and L. Bertagna, trio to whom the subsequent Une expérience d'étude de groupe is also due. The processus de l'identification et l'Importance de la suggestibilité dans la situation cinématographique, published in nr. 13, 1953), and Cinéma et criminalité (nr. 14-15, 1953); by G.-C. Zapparoli, F.-G. Finally, Ferradini and M. Arrigoni are the Observations sur un phénomène d'enrichissement testimonial chez des sujets psychotiques (nr. 38, 1961), while the future psychoanalyst D. Anzieu, in addition to the already mentioned Filmologie et biologie (nr. 1), signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. written together with G. Heuyer and L. Bertagna, trio to whom the subsequent Une expérience d'étude de groupe is also due. The processus de l'identification et l'importance de la suggestibilité dans la situation cinématographique, published in nr. 13, 1953), and Cinéma et criminalité (nr. 14-15, 1953); by G.-C. Zapparoli, F.-G. Finally, Ferradini and M. Arrigoni are the Observations sur un phénomène d'enrichissement testimonial chez des sujets psychotiques (nr. 38, 1961), while the future psychoanalyst D. Anzieu, in addition to the already mentioned Filmologie et biologie (nr. 1), signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. importance of the suggestibility in the film situation, published in nr. 13, 1953), and Cinéma et criminalité (nr. 14-15, 1953); by G.-C. Zapparoli, F.-G. Finally, Ferradini and M. Arrigoni are the Observations sur un phénomène d'enrichissement testimonial chez des sujets psychotiques (nr. 38, 1961), while the future psychoanalyst D. Anzieu, in addition to the already mentioned Filmologie et biologie (nr. 1), signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. importance of the suggestibility in the film situation, published in nr. 13, 1953), and Cinéma et criminalité (nr. 14-15, 1953); by G.-C. Zapparoli, F.-G. Finally, Ferradini and M. Arrigoni are the Observations sur un phénomène d'enrichissement testimonial chez des sujets psychotiques (nr. 38, 1961), while the future psychoanalyst D. Anzieu, in addition to the already mentioned Filmologie et biologie (nr. 1), signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. signature in no. 2 a second speech entitled Filmologie et sociologie. The impression of reality Among the psychological problems applied to cinema, it should be remembered with a separate discourse that relating to the so-called impression of reality. It was touched by the psychologists of which we spoke, was among the themes of the volume L'univers filmique, as we have seen, and found space in the "Revue" from the second issue, thanks to the essay Le temps, l'espace et le sentiment de réalité signed by Roman Ingarden, professor at the University of Krakow, and thanks to the studies of the Belgian A. Michotte van der Berck, remembered later by Ch. Metz in his first essay À propos de la impression de réalité au cinéma ( in "Cahiers du cinéma", nr. 166-167, 1965; later republished in the 1st volume of the Essais sur la signification au cinéma, 1968; trad. it. Semiology of cinema, 1972). Michotte's main intervention on The topic bears the title Le caractère de "réalité" des projections cinématographiques and is published on nr. 3-4, 1948, of the "Revue". The scholar connects the impression of reality, so strong in cinema, to the movement factor, which gives body to objects allowing them to detach themselves from the background, to acquire relief and through relief life (analogous considerations will be carried out by C. Musatti speaking of "stereokinetic effect" in his essay Les phénomènes stéréocinétiques et les effets stéréoscopiques du cinéma normal, published in issue 29, 1957, of the "Revue"). But, says Michotte, the movement contributes to the impression of reality also in a more direct way, that is, giving itself as a real movement. " it is in fact the general law of psychology - Metz observes in the quoted essay - that movement, starting from the moment in which it is perceived, is perceived most of the time as real, contrary to many other visual writings such as, for example, the volume, the which, for its part, can very well be perceived as unreal at the very moment in which it is perceived (as happens for perspective drawings). A. Michotte studied causalist interpretations - impression that something was "pushed, pulled, thrown, etc." - who sketch subjects who have simply been shown movement, thanks to a tiny device combined in such a way as to make only movement appear, and not its production mechanism; this spontaneous causalism, believes A. Michotte, Interest in mass communications In recent years, the magazine tended, as has been said, to specialize its interventions, on the one hand inclining towards psychophysiological experimentation and on the other introducing the theme of mass communication. The latter will be the main theme of the "Revue" since 1957, in an evolution that will lead to a sort of natural rotation with the Italian "Ikon". The nr. 29, January-March 1957, finds its center in a discourse on "visual communication techniques", to which the essay by Cohen-Séat Nature et portée de l'information par les techniques visuelles and the report of a debate on visual communication techniques and the notion of information, attended by Cohen-Séat, Morin and R. Pagès, among others, After this issue, the pace of the magazine became less frequent: at the next issue no. 30-31, dated 1958 and dedicated to the study of a "thematic film material", followed only in the summer of 1960 nr. 32-33 (January-June), which hosts an essay by Frederic Bartlett entitled Le cinéma et la transmission de la culture, an essay by P. Fougeyrollas entitled L'information visuelle à contenu politique et les relations entre le pouvoir et le public, and one by H. Dieuzeide entitled Principes généraux d'une réflexion filmologique appliquée à la télévision, as well as a long psychophysiological multi-hand writing (which also included Cohen-Séat), the first part of a dossier (the second will be in the next issue) dedicated to Le cinéma pour enfants and the first of two writings by R. Barthes on "Revue": The numbers 35, 36-37, 38 and 39 of the "Revue", published between the end of 1960 and the end of the following year, find their fulcrum in the cinematographic experiments of a psychological and psychophysiological character on children and subjects suffering from disorders psychics (still with the direct participation of the founder of the magazine), and in a speech on visual information centered in all four issues on the first international visual information conference organized in Milan, an event which, with the foundation of a central registry of the Scientific research on visual information and with the growth of the Filmology Institute of Milan, it appears decisive for the passage of filmological deliveries to the 'Agostino Gemelli' Institute and for the birth of the new magazine "Ikon",whose Steering Committee will be composed of Leonardo Ancona, Cohen-Séat, F. Bartlett and C. Musatti.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Z. Gawrak , La filmologie: bilan de la naissance jusqu 'au 1958 , in "Ikon", 1968, 65-66. G. De Vincenti , At the origins of cinematographic semiotics: Cohen-Séat , in "Theater Library", 1974, 10-11, pp. 189-204. E. Lowry , The filmology movement and film study in France , Ann Arbor (MI) 1985. F. Casetti , Theories of cinema (1945-1990) , Milan 1993, pp. 99-101.
J. Aumont, A. Bergala, M. Marie, M. Vernet , Esthétique du film , Paris 1994, éd. revue et augmentée (trad. it. Turin 1995).
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[ پنجشنبه 24 بهمن 1398 ] 20:32 ] [ masoumi5631 ]
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FASCISM AND CINEMA The question of the relationships between f. and cinema moves on a double terrain of analysis: that of the regime's use of new means of mass communication, and that of the complex and multifaceted relations it maintains with the world of culture. It is therefore a crucial question for an overall evaluation of the f., Its modernizing aims and abilities as well as its actual totalitarian nature. Moreover, modernization and totalitarianism represent the interpretative extremes within which the historiographic research on the subject has developed: from the separation of a clear Crocian ancestry between f. and culture, aimed at crediting the image of a regime based on the control and coercion of intellectuals (Bobbio 1973), to the inclusion of cinema as a component of the ' fascist consensus machine (Cannistraro 1975) as part of a more general recovery of the links between the history of f. and history of Italy (De Felice 1975), up to the articulation of the relationships between f. and mass culture in terms of institutional organization, professional corporatism, homogenization of training mechanisms (Isnenghi 1979; Turi 1980). Each of these three different interpretative visions leads to a different concept of culture: 'high', elitist and European in the first, 'low', functional and ideological in the second, 'mixed', plural and fragmented in the third. Specifically in the history of cinema, the interpretative key of a clear separation between fascist cinema and Italian cinema has been proposed in an organic way by one of the protagonists of that same story, Carlo Lizzani: "Italian cinema from 1930 onwards (Italian cinema which, as we said, bears the imprint of Blasetti and Camerini) is today a clear story for us, a transparent and meaningful parable. It is the story of how the middle class, mass base of fascism, 'lent' its ideology, its illusions, its dreams and its myths to the ruling regime "(Lizzani 1960, 1992³, p. 45). In this case, auteur cinema is treated as a story in itself, essentially internal and self-referential, determined by the double relationship with the parallel evolution of European and American cinema and with the national cultural tradition. In other words, it is a story separate from that of state cinema, exemplified by the documentaries of the Istituto Nazionale Luce and functional to the official propaganda of the regime, both from that of the more strictly commercial cinema, inspired by the so-called genre of white telephones (so called because of its attention to the luxurious furnishings of high-bourgeois domestic interiors) and to a lesser literature of mere escape. Precisely the absence of a full-bodied and significant precedent, comparable to that which the season of Expressionism had represented in Germany, had determined in Italy a much lower quality level than this commercial cinema compared to its German counterpart. Vice versa, the search for a poetics closer to reality and daily life (that cultural world 'lent' by the middle class to f.) Led the best directors of the period to escape early from the riverbed of the Lizzani's interpretation, deliberately content and unwilling to investigate the economic and industrial implications of cinematographic art, was contrasted in the seventies with a different reading, marked in depth from the point of view of a militant and committed cinematographic critic. According to this reading, also the films of Alessandro Blasetti and Mario Camerini- instead of showing an implicit opposition to the fascist ideology - they were contaminated by the dominant atmosphere and limited themselves to proposing the different variants of the same narrative scheme, founded on the parenthesis of a transgressive holiday closed by a rapid return to order and a prompt restoration of balances and social hierarchies (Carabba 1974). Entrusted to the reconstruction of petty-bourgeois affairs and environments rather than epic mythologies, this conservative and traditionalist message ended up acquiring a far more insidious and pervasive penetration capacity than that put in place by cinema closer and functional to regime propaganda. Between the opposing visions of Lizzani and Carabba runs the same space that exists between an older generation, interested in ennobling their cultural origins by separating them from those of the fascist regime, and a younger generation, striving for self-assertion through criticism or the condemnation en bloc of the connivances and co-responsibility of their fathers. As E. Garin remarked at the time, "not having thoroughly conducted a ruthless analysis, at all levels, even on the field of culture, was a serious fault of this post-war period, which was at first too prone to moralistic condemnations parallel to indulgent compromises, then too prone to global, rhetorical and unrealistic refusals "(Garin 1974, p. XX). self-affirmation through criticism or the condemnation en bloc of the connivances and co-responsibility of one's fathers. As E. Garin remarked at the time, "not having thoroughly conducted a ruthless analysis, at all levels, even on the field of culture, was a serious fault of this post-war period, which was at first too prone to moralistic condemnations parallel to indulgent compromises, then too prone to global, rhetorical and unrealistic refusals "(Garin 1974, p. XX). self-affirmation through criticism or the condemnation en bloc of the connivances and co-responsibility of one's fathers. As E. Garin remarked at the time, "not having thoroughly conducted a ruthless analysis, at all levels, even on the field of culture, was a serious fault of this post-war period, which was at first too prone to moralistic condemnations parallel to indulgent compromises, then too prone to global, rhetorical and unrealistic refusals "(Garin 1974, p. XX). In the mid-seventies, a conference held in Pesaro in 1974 and a review held there the following year became the interpreters of an overall re-evaluation of the cinema of white telephones (see comedy), revised in anticipation of the neorealist phenomenon especially in the sense of a non-ideological and non-literary attention to bourgeois interiors, glimpses of social life and characters far from the regime's imperial and bellicist rhetoric (Italian cinema under fascism, 1979; Midas, Quaglietti 1980). The conservative and traditionalist nature of the environments staged by this cinema corresponded to an atavistic and profound identity of the Italians: talented, smart, romantic but always lovers of their own particular and therefore ultimately very far from the 'new man' that the f . he would have liked to build. It does not seem a forcing to underline both the chronological coincidence and the assonances of this type of revaluation - against which Lizzani protested from the columns of the "Corriere della Sera" (December 31, 1976) - with the more comprehensive historiographic revision linked to the name of R. De Felice. In fact, this revision was based on an interpretation of the Mussolini dictatorship as an attempt to accelerate the modernization of the country, in which the contradictions of Italian history and society were mixed: through a physiognomy from time to time industrialist and ruralist, the regime built a relationship of hegemony over the most dynamic parts of civil society (the middle classes), up to gaining active consent. But it would have been this profound intertwining with the nation that aroused the same subjects from within the regime (the exponents of 'left-wing fascism' such as G. Bottai and A. Grandi) destined to cause its fall. Not too dissimilar, in the cinema of white telephones the kinship with the coeval and best French cinematography (Marcel Carné, Jean Renoir) was emphasized up to configure it as the expression of a tacit anti-fascist branch, from whose branch the blooms of the neorealist film and comedy would then blossom Italian. It was during the 1980s that - on the basis of that third more general historiographic vision, more articulated and attentive to the mechanisms of organization and transmission of mass culture in the Fascist era - a less univocal and more differentiated approach gradually took over. theme of relationships between f. and cinema. It is no coincidence that this new approach has often been linked to Anglo-Saxon research, and the United States in particular. At the center of it is in fact a reading of cinema as a mass cultural consumption and therefore as a mirror and at the same time a projector of lifestyles, myths and stereotypes of common sense. In the relationship between cinema and f. therefore a mass culture is placed as an element of mediation and combination which is at the base of the social structure and is the result of the intertwining of different factors: official regime ideology, popular folklore and age-old subaltern cultures, stratified mentality of class and community , contingent dynamics of the socio-economic condition, civic and solidarity traditions (Hay 1987). Cinema is an artistic creation and therefore an internal product of contexts, filiations and cultural and intellectual relationships, but it is also a means of mass communication and therefore a product intended for different audiences (young people, women, families) to interpret their personal and collective identities. In this effort to decipher the society to which it is addressed, cinema is never merely a passive reflection of reality nor merely pure and simple evasion. Rather, it constitutes "a mosaic of myths involving the family, work, social rise, youthful heroism, sacrifice, imperial dream, sexual conflict, love and leisure and, more particularly, of strategies often unaware of the naturalization of experiences to create a sense of 'how things are' "(Landy 1986, pp. 27-28). Although it did not presuppose a fascist viewer in the more strictly ideological sense of the term, According to this vision, through cinema a reciprocal relationship was built between the fascist regime and the middle class: within which, that is, each "lent" - to use Lizzani's expression - something to the other. As one of the protagonists of that time, Sergio Amidei, says, "one cannot speak of fascist cinema, but of Italian cinema" (Le cinéma italien, 1990, pp. 17-18), because, to put it in the words of a another witness such as Alberto Moravia, "cinema of the fascist era unconsciously reflected the social situation of Italy under fascism, that is, a small bourgeoisie of rural origin, peasant, who believed in the myth of ancient Rome and the Renaissance" (Le cinéma italien, 1990, p. 194). The same overall question of consent to the regime comes out redefined in more complex and multifaceted, less univocal and undifferentiated terms. The modernizing hegemony of f. it cannot be reduced to induced and compulsive false consciousness, but it is not even a homogeneous and suffocating totalitarian cloak: it knows areas of shadow, plots and plural articulations. To evaluate this dynamic in historically more precise terms, it should be remembered that the starting point, at the beginning of the 1920s, was that of a serious crisis in Italian cinema, determined by the ruthless competition of the Hollywood majors and the unexpected recovery of the variety linked to the big names of O. Spadaro, R. Viviani, L. Fregoli, E. Petrolini (Brunetta 1991, 1995²). In the aftermath of the march on Rome, the Mussolini government showed concern about control over the morality of the films in circulation, but appeared far from conscious use of film production. A few dozen films were released every year, which relentlessly went back into international consideration in the face of the contemporary works of Fritz Lang, Sergej M. Ejzenštejn, René Clair, Charlie Chaplin. L' the only success destined in some way to cross the boundaries of the national audience was Augusto Genina's Cirano di Bergerac (1922), who creatively revisited the pre-war vein of period films; a director like Camerini was trained at his school. The stabilization process of the dictatorship was reflected in the establishment of the Istituto Nazionale Luce (November 1925) as a state body: since April 1926 the documentaries "of national and patriotic propaganda" produced by it (in the end, in 1943, there would have been about three thousand ) were shown in all the cinemas of the Kingdom. The regime therefore seemed to carve out a sphere of direct and conscious intervention in the modern sector of mass communication, with no purpose of support and orientation in the production of fiction (Argentieri 1979; Cardillo 1983). The latter continued to re-propose the lucky cycle of Maciste (the actor Bartolomeo Pagano, who impersonated him, was the highest paid of Italian silent cinema) and a serial and rhetorical 'Romanity' but without visible links with current events: Messalina (1923) by Enrico Guazzoni, Quo vadis? (1924) by Gabriellino D'Annunzio and Georg Jacoby, The last days of Pompeii (1926) by Amleto Palermi and Carmine Gallone (Martinelli 1980-81; Gori 1988). The only exception in this task sharing framework was the 1923 film The Eagle's Scream directed by Mario Volpe, which traced a line of continuity between the First World War and the march on Rome, and which however met a total failure of public and critics. who impersonated him, was the highest paid of Italian silent cinema) and a serial and rhetorical 'Romanity' but without visible links with current affairs: Enrico Guazzoni's Messalina (1923), Quo vadis? (1924) by Gabriellino D'Annunzio and Georg Jacoby, The last days of Pompeii (1926) by Amleto Palermi and Carmine Gallone (Martinelli 1980-81; Gori 1988). The only exception in this task sharing framework was the 1923 film The Eagle's Scream directed by Mario Volpe, which traced a line of continuity between the First World War and the march on Rome, and which however met a total failure of public and critics. who impersonated him, was the highest paid of Italian silent cinema) and a serial and rhetorical 'Romanity' but without visible links with current affairs: Enrico Guazzoni's Messalina (1923), Quo vadis? (1924) by Gabriellino D'Annunzio and Georg Jacoby, The last days of Pompeii (1926) by Amleto Palermi and Carmine Gallone (Martinelli 1980-81; Gori 1988). The only exception in this task sharing framework was the 1923 film The Eagle's Scream directed by Mario Volpe, which traced a line of continuity between the First World War and the march on Rome, and which however met a total failure of public and critics. Quo vadis? (1924) by Gabriellino D'Annunzio and Georg Jacoby, The last days of Pompeii (1926) by Amleto Palermi and Carmine Gallone (Martinelli 1980-81; Gori 1988). The only exception in this task sharing framework was the 1923 film The Eagle's Scream directed by Mario Volpe, which traced a line of continuity between the First World War and the march on Rome, and which however met a total failure of public and critics. Quo vadis? (1924) by Gabriellino D'Annunzio and Georg Jacoby, The last days of Pompeii (1926) by Amleto Palermi and Carmine Gallone (Martinelli 1980-81; Gori 1988). The only exception in this task-sharing framework was the 1923 film The Eagle's Scream directed by Mario Volpe, which traced a line of continuity between the First World War and the march on Rome, and which however met a total failure of public and critics. Only at the end of the 1920s did a new vein of colonial argument emerge, the best product of which remains Kiff Tebby (1928), epic of the Italian military mission in the land of Africa, which consecrated the international success of Camerini (Brunetta, Gili 1990). Sole (1929) was dedicated to the 'internal front' of the major reclamations of the Pontine marshes, directed by a young 'militant intellectual' of the regime, A. Blasetti. The revaluation of the peasant world, of which the film stood as a conscious spokesman, seemed very far from the aggressive and populist rhetoric of M. Maccari's Strapaese and his magazine "Il Selvaggio": rurality was not seen as the antithesis of 'modernist civilization ', and dell' man exalted the collective ability to fight against nature rather than to defend and preserve it passively. Almost an industrialist counterpoint to Blasetti's film was Camerini's Rotaie (1930), apologist for the ethics of factory work as opposed to the debauchery of gambling, in which echoes and suggestions of Soviet cinema also reverberated. Camerini and Blasetti were linked to the 'rebirth' of Italian cinema. At the end of the 1920s, the projection rooms returned to crowd, regaining the lost ground in favor of the variety. But every year there were more than a thousand securities imported from abroad (and mainly from the United States) compared to the few dozen resulting from national production. It was at this juncture that the regime's active intervention matured. On June 18, 1931, law no. 918, the first of organic support to the sector, which allocated 10% of the proceeds to production: "the Government" - claimed G. Bottai, then Minister of Corporations - "wanted to help the industry to resist the foreign industry that leads on our market those films of variety, fantasy, imagination that constitute a powerful attraction for the public. I rarely go to the cinema, but I have always found that the public invariably gets bored when the cinema wants to educate it. The public wants to be amused and it is precisely on this ground that we want to help the Italian industry today "(Brunetta 1991, 1995², p. 191). The support from a nationalist and anti-American point of view for film production therefore did not alter the background of the division of tasks established with the foundation of the Istituto Luce: propaganda in newsreels, evasion in cinema And it is interesting to note that the fascist initiative avoided the adoption of protectionist measures (still in 1938 almost two thirds of the proceeds would go to Hollywood films) and of control filters on national production. Private production houses multiplied: to the reconstituted oneCines (which inaugurated the first sound systems in May 1930), directed by Stefano Pittaluga and then by Emilio Cecchi, were joined by Caesar, Titanus , Lux. In 1934 the Tirrenia Film plants opened. Those were the years when the star of Luigi Freddi, a former journalist correspondent from the United States and director of cinematography at the Ministry of Press and Propaganda (Freddi 1948), was rising. Under his leadership, the state initiative supported the private one: the investments of the National Film Industries Authority increased, and from February 1934 the Entertainment Corporation organized actors and authors of theater and cinema, alongside the Fascist Federation of show businessmen established in 1926. Under the slogan "cinematography is the strongest weapon", Cinecittà was inaugurated in April 1937. With ten stage theaters built on the outskirts of Rome at the gates of Cines, destroyed in 1935 by a fire, it was the largest European production complex: from January 1940 it was managed by Freddi himself. Italian production increased, and from 45 films in 1938 to 85 in 1940: 55 of them left Cinecittà. The receipts of Italian films rose from just over 10% in 1938 to over 50% in 1942; American ones fell in the same period from almost two thirds to just over a fifth (Savio 1975 and 1979; Corsi 2001). But the quality also grew. In the summer of 1932 the first edition of the Venice International Film Festival was held, where the works of René Clair, Joris Ivens, Frank Capra, Jean Renoir (awarded in 1937 for La grande illusion, La grande illusion, which however it sparked attacks by the regime for its anti-militarism). In October 1935 the Experimental Center of Cinematography, directed by Luigi Chiarini, had been opened in Rome, where most of the directors who would have established themselves after the war were trained and the magazine "Bianco e nero" (Laura 1976) was christened. The panorama of Italian cinema remained dominated by the figures of Blasetti and Camerini. The first brought to the screens the theatrical comedy of Ettore Petrolini (Nero, 1930) and re-read the Risorgimento myth in a populist key with 1860 (1934), where the point of view of the Sicilian subaltern classes - also explained by the use of dialect - was functional to the presentation of the process of national unification in the key of "concordant inter-class participation" (Brunetta 1991, 1995², p. 220). The blasettian vein of homeland history expanded with Ettore Fieramosca (1938) and La cena delle beffe (1942), famous for the bare breasts of Clara Calamai, up to Quattro passi tra le clouds (1942) which - with the screenplay by Cesare Zavattini - marked the passage to a more lyrical theme of escape from reality. In The Men, Who Rascals ... (1932) Camerini inaugurated a vein of satire of the dreams of greatness and the daily miseries of the petty bourgeoisie, who availed himself of the acting of Vittorio De Sica (Il signor Max, 1937). It would have been the latter, passed behind the camera, to overturn the brilliant approach in moral criticism with Children look at us (1944), where the loss of childhood innocence reflected the impending tragedy of the war and resulted in condemnation of the world of adults. Less successful were films more directly attributable to regime propaganda, such as Blasetti's Vecchia Guard (1935), C. Gallone's Scipione l'Africano (1937), who attempted to ennoble the imperial myth with great use of means, or L siege of the Alcazar (1940) by A. Genina, dedicated to the rhetorical celebration of the Francoist uprising. Much luckier was instead Luciano Serra pilot (1938) of Goffredo Alessandrini, who consecrated Amedeo Nazzari to national star through a more intimate and psychological interpretation of militarist mythology as an instrument of individual redemption. The bulk of the production focused on the genre of white telephones, which reproduced Hungarian theatrical texts flatly and shone due to the absence of sex, politics and history, interpreting the dream of social ascent of a qualunquista and particularistic middle class: One thousand lire per month ( 1939) by Max Neufeld was the most representative example (Bolzoni 1988). It was in this plural and multifaceted framework that an explicit realist and classist approach penetrated the French cinema of Marcel Carné, Jean Renoir and Julien Duvivier. "We want to bring our cameras" - wrote in "Cinema" in 1941 Giuseppe De Santis and Mario Alicata - "in the streets, fields, factories, ports of our country: we too are convinced that one day we will create our more beautiful film following the slow and tired step of the worker returning home "(Brunetta 1991, 1995², p. 212). The major fruit of this instance was Luchino Visconti's Obsession (1943): a murky story of adultery, murder and punishment taken from the novel by J. Cain (The postman always rings twice, 1934), which provoked the reprobation of Catholic circles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY L. Freddi , The cinema , 2 vols., Rome 1948. C. Lizzani , Italian cinema. From its origins to the eighties , Rome 1960, 1992³. N. Bobbio , Culture and Fascism , in Fascism and Italian society , edited by G. Quazza, Turin 1973, pp. 209-46. C. Carabba , The cinema of the black twenty years , Florence 1974. E. Garin , Italian intellectuals of the 20th century , Rome 1974. PV Cannistraro , The consensus machine. Fascism and mass media , Rome-Bari 1975. R. De Felice , Interview on fascism , edited by MA Ledeen, Rome-Bari 1975. F. Savio , Ma amore no , Milan 1975. EG Laura , The Experimental Center of Cinematography Between Tradition and Reform , Rome 1976. M. Argentieri , The eye of the regime. Information and propaganda in the cinema of fascism , Florence 1979. P. Bertetto , The construction of regime cinema: homogenization of the public and removal of the negative , in Italian cinema of the fifties , edited by G. Tinazzi, Venice 1979, pp. 132-47. M. Isnenghi , militant intellectuals and civil servants , Turin 1979. F. Savio , Cinecittà 1930s , 3 vols., Rome 1979. Italian cinema under fascism , edited by R. Redi, Venice 1979. M. Mida, L. Quaglietti , From white telephones to neorealism , Venice 1980. G. Turi , Fascism and the consent of intellectuals , Bologna 1980. V. Martinelli , Italian silent cinema , 4 vols., Rome 1980-81. M. Cardillo , Il Duce in moviola , Bari 1983. M. Landy , Fascism in film. The Italian commercial cinema 1931-1943 , Princeton (NJ) 1986. J. Hay , Popular film culture in fascist Italy: the passing of the Rex , Bloomington (IN) 1987. F. Bolzoni , The Hungarian comedy in Italian cinema , in "Black and White", 1988, 3, pp. 7-41. G. Gori , Patria Diva , Florence 1988. GP Brunetta, J. Gili , Africa time in Italian cinema 1911-1989 , sl 1990. Le cinéma italien à l'ombre des faisceaux 1922-1945 , éd. J. Gili, Perpignan 1990. GP Brunetta , One Hundred Years of Italian Cinema , 2 vols., Rome-Bari 1991, 1995².
B. Courses , With a few dollars less. Economic history of Italian cinema , Rome 2001.
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